









































































I 


9 




¥ 




I 



% 







t 














I 


V 



; 





% 


















M ^ • .* 





% 





4 


I 


* 






♦ 



























COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Near View of Berries of Coffea Arabica 









Coffee 

Merchandising 

A Handbook to the Coffee Business Giving Elementary 
and Essential Facts Pertaining to the History, 
Cultivation, Preparation, and Marketing 
of Coffee 


William H. Ukers, M.A. 

Editor, The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal 
Author, All About Coffee; A Trip to Brazil 



NEW YORK 


The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co. 


1924 





HD =i i=tl 
• A alL3 


Copyright 1924 
By 

THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL CO. 
New York 

International Copyright Secured 
All Rights Reserved in the U. S. A. and Foreign Countries 


PRINTED IN THE U. S. A. 


SFP19 *?A 

© Cl A 8 0 0 917 

■V5 / 


To My Co-workers on 
The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal 




PREFACE 


T HIS work has been written in response to a demand 
for a handbook for the especial use of those engaged 
in the coffee business. To a certain extent it repre¬ 
sents a condensation of the author’s encyclopedic work, “All 
About Coffee.” “Coffee Merchandising,” however, is de¬ 
signed primarily for beginners in the coffee business. It will 
be found to contain all the elementary and essential facts 
pertaining to the history, cultivation, preparation, and mar¬ 
keting of coffee. 

In it the author has tried to avoid dogmatism. He has 
aimed to tell briefly the story of coffee, including all those 
things which every intelligent coffee man should know con¬ 
cerning the early history of the beverage, the botany of the 
plant, the chemistry of coffee, how coffee grows, how it is 
prepared for the market, how it is bought and sold in the 
countries of production, and how it is marketed at wholesale 
and at retail in the United States. In the telling of the 
story the author has given the reader the best thought of 
the trade on all controversial questions, striving to keep his 
own opinions in the background. 

Then, too, the aim has been not only to tell the history 
story, but to show how successful men in the coffee trade 
have built up the most enduring business. For this rea¬ 
son the work should prove a source of inspiration, as well 
as a fount of knowledge, for students and salesmen. 

Those who may wish to make a more thorough study of 
the subject, to delve deeply into the history, romance, and 
poetry of coffee, or its scientific aspects, are referred to “All 
About Coffee,” by the same author. 

There are two important factors which make for success 
in the coffee business,—faith and work,—an abiding faith 


VII 


PREFACE 


in the opportunity which it offers to render a public service 
and which inspires the faithful student to get all the facts 
about coffee so as to be able to give reasons for his faith; 
then an intelligent application of the knowledge coupled 
with that diligence in business which always spells success 
in any trade or profession—and lo! the battle is won. It is 
the author’s hope that “Coffee Merchandising” will prove a 
lamp that will shed some helpful light on the way of all 
those who are pushing on to greater achievements in the 
coffee business. 



VIII 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

A Short History of Coffee 

A brief account of the beginning of coffee in the Near East — 
Early legends, persecutions, first printed references — The in¬ 
troduction of the beverage into England, France, and Germany 

— Early London and Paris coffee houses — The story of the 
spread of coffee propagation around the coffee belt of the world 

— Early American coffee houses.Page 1 

CHAPTER II 
The Botany of Coffee 

Its complete classification by class, sub-class, order, family, genus, 
and species—How Coffea arabica, grows, flowers, and bears — 
Other species and hybrids.Page 17 

CHAPTER III 

Chemistry and Pharmacology of Coffee 

The chief factors which enter into coffee goodness — Brief discus¬ 
sion of caffein and caffeol — Coffee’s place in a rational die¬ 
tary— Latest scientific discoveries that establish the whole 
truth about coffee as a wholesome, satisfying drink for the 
great majority of people and cause it to be regarded as the 
servant, rather than the destroyer, of civilization.Page 25 

CHAPTER IV 
Where Coffee Grows 

Locating the principal coffee-growing districts in the world’s coffee 
belt, with a commercial coffee chart of the leading growths, 
giving market names and general trade characteristics.Page 31 

CHAPTER V 
How Coffee Is Grown 

Coffee cultivation in general — Soil, climate, rainfall, altitude, 
propagation, shade windbreaks, diseases — How the plant 
grows in all the principal producing countries.Page 37 

CHAPTER VI 

Preparing Green Coffee for Market 

The marvelous coffee package, one of the most ingenious in all 
na t ur e — How coffee is harvested — Picking — Dry and wet 
methods of preparation — Pulping — Fermentation and wash¬ 
ing — Drying — Hulling, or peeling and polishing—Sizing or 
grading — Preparation methods of different countries. Page 43 






CONTENTS 


CHAPTER VII 


Buying Coffee in the Producing Countries 

How green coffee is bought and sold in the countries of origin. 

Page 61 


CHAPTER VIII 


Buying and Selling Green Coffee at Wholesale 
The seven stages of transportation — Handling coffee at New 
York—How green coffee is graded—(Spot market trading — 
Buying coffee C. & F. — Futures and hedging — Buying and 
selling commissions — Brokers — The Exchange Clearing House 
— Brazil quotations — London, Havre, and Hamburg mar¬ 
kets — Rulings.Page 69 


CHAPTER IX 

Green and Roasted Coffee Characteristics 
The trade values, bean characteristics, jand cup merits of the lead¬ 
ing coffees of commerce — Appearance, aroma, and flavor in 
cup testing—How experts test coffees—Typical sample- 


roasting and cup-testing outfit.Page 81 

CHAPTER X 
Coffee Blending 

Blending green coffees — Properly balanced blends — Low-priced 
and high-priced blends — Blends for restaurant and hotel trade 
— Doubtful value of sample blends.Page 105 


CHAPTER XI 
Coffee Roasting 

Separating, milling, and mixing — The roasting operation — Dry 
and wet roasts — Finishing and coating — Cost card for roast¬ 
ers — Cooling and stoning — Roasting equipment — Blending 
roasted coffee — A trip through a model coffee-roasting plant 

— Evolution of coffee-roasting apparatus.Page 111 

CHAPTER XII 
Coffee Grinding 

“Steel-cut” coffee — Wholesale coffee grinding — Evolution of 
grinding apparatus .Page 131 

CHAPTER XIII 

Selling Roasted Coffee at Wholesale 
How coffees are sold at wholesale — The wholesale salesman’s 
place in merchandising—Ten things every master salesman 
should know r — Profit sharing for salesmen — iSome coffee costs 
analyzed — Common sense in cost finding — Terms and credits 

— About package coffees — Coffee-selling chart — Various types 

of coffee containers —Labels —Coffee-packaging economies — 
Practical grocer helps —Coffee sampling — Premium method 
of sales promotion. p fl£r « 


x 








CONTENTS 


CHAPTER XIV 
'Selling Coffee at Retail 

How coffees are sold at retail — The place of the grocer, the tea 
and coffee dealer, the chain store, and the wagon-route dis¬ 
tributer in the scheme of distribution — Starting in the retail 
coffee business — Coffee blends for retailers—Small roasters 
for retail dealers — Model coffee departments — Creating a 
coffee trade — Meeting competition — Profits and costs — Split¬ 
ting nickels — Figuring costs and profits — A credit policy for 
retailers — Premiums for retailers — IIow to build and hold a 
retail coffee business.Page 155 


CHAPTER XV 

Brewing Coffee in Hotels and Restaurants 
Analyzing the potential market — The supreme coffee test — 
Freshly roasted and freshly ground — Coffee-brewing conclu¬ 
sions— Coffee urns — Rules for making coffee in hotels and 
restaurants—General directions for improving coffee service 
— How to operate a successful coffee shop, with sample menus, 
hints on equipment and service.Page 175 

CHAPTER XVI 

Production and Consumption of Coffee 
A statistical study of w r orld production and consumption of 
coffee by countries — Coffee in the United States — The trend 
of the trade in 1923 — Brazil’s coffee valorization... Page 197 

CHAPTER XVII 
Coffee Advertising 

The first coffee advertisement — Evolution of coffee advertising — 
Package-coffee advertising — Advertising to the trade — Ad¬ 
vertising by various mediums — Advertising for retailers with 
ready-made sample copy — Advertising tto the nose—Suc¬ 
cessful coffee window displays — Advertising by government 
propaganda — Coffee-advertising efficiency.Page 219 

CHAPTER XVIII 


Coffee Making in the Home 

The importance of correct grinding and brewing — Drip or filter 
coffee — Boiled or steeped coffee — Percolated coffee — The 
perfect cup of coffee — Some coffee recipes.Page 233 


XI 






INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS 


Facing page 

Near view of berries of Coffea arabica (frontispiece). iii 

Legendary discovery of the coffee drink. 1 

First advertisement for coffee. 6 

A coffee house in the time of Charles II. 10 

Merchants Cbffee House in New York. 14 

Coffea arabica flower and fruit. 17 

Green and roasted Bogota coffee. 25 

800,000 coffee trees in bearing. 31 

Coffee nursery under a bamboo roof. 37 

Efficient weeding and harrowing at Ribeirao Preto. 38 

Picking coffee on a well-kept fazenda. 43 

Coffee drying ground, Sao Paulo. 50 

Loading coffee aboard ship at Santos. 61 

Weighing and sacking coffee at Santos. 62 

Coffee pit in the New York Coffee & Sugar Exchange. 69 

Samples of typical roasted coffee beans.81, 86, 90, 98 

Modern gas coffee-roasting plant. Ill 

Dumping the roast in a coal roasting plant. 118 

Some leading trade-marked coffee containers. 139 

Luhrs, of Poughkeepsie, features freshly roasted coffee in his 

window . 155 

Johnson of Red Oak roasts before the customer. 162 

One of the coffee kitchens of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. 175 

Day and night coffee room of the Rice Hotel, Houston. 184 

Advertising copy of the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity 

Committee . 219 

Drawing upon history for social-intercourse atmosphere.... 224 

A prize-winning coffee window display. 228 

Cbffee-making devices used in United States. 233 

Brewing the guest’s coffee in a Mohammedan home. 236 

Showing how grinding breaks open the oil cells. 242 


XII 

































COFFEE MERCHANDISING 




CHAPTER I 


A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE 

A brief account of the beginning of coffee in the Near 
East — Early legends, persecutions, first printed 
References—The introduction of the beverage into 
England, France, and Germany — Early London 
and Paris coffee houses — The story of the spread 
of coffee propagation around the coffee belt of the 
world — Early American coffee houses. 

C OFFEE is at least 1,000 years old. It was first men¬ 
tioned in literature by Rhazes, a famous Arabian 
physician, about the year 900; only Rhazes called 
it bunchum. The early Arabians called the bean and the 
tree that bore it bunn; the drink, bunchum. 

Our word “coffee” comes from the Arabic qahwah, 
through the Turkish kahveh, being originally one of the 
names employed for wine in Arabic. The word has no con¬ 
nection with the town of Kaffa in Abyssinia, as many writ¬ 
ers have supposed. Its final form in French became cafe ; 
in German, kafjee. The North American Indians knew it 
as kaufee. 

Coffee was first a food, then a wine, a medicine, and 
lastly a beverage. Its use as a popular beverage dates back 
700 years. 

Coffee Was First a Food Ration 
In the beginning, the whole ripe berries, beans, and hulls 
were crushed and molded into food balls held in shape with 
fat. This was about 800 A. D. The Galla, a wandering 
African tribe, still make use of these food balls. One of 
them, of the size of a billiard ball, constitutes a day’s ra¬ 
tion, and sustains them on long marches. The inhabitants 
of the island of Groix, off the coast of Brittany, also thrive 
on a diet that includes roasted coffee beans. But, however 


1 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


nourishing these isolated groups may find coffee taken in 
this way, so far they have no imitators, and the rest of the 
world wisely prefers to use it in the liquid form. 

Following its use as a food ration, a kind of aromatic 
wine was made in Africa from the fermented juice of the 
hulls and pulp of the ripe berries. Next a medicine was 
made by boiling the dried berries in water. About 1200, 
the practice began of making a drink from the dried hulls 
alone and boiling in water. Toasting the hulls followed, 
and about 1300 it was the custom to roast the dried beans 
after hulling and to boil them whole. Grinding in mortars 
was a later development. 

Some Early Legends 

Sheik Omar, a doctor-priest and a disciple of Sheik 
Schadheli, the patron saint and legendary founder of Mocha, 
quite by chance discovered coffee as a beverage at Ousab in 
Arabia in 1258. Omar was in exile and facing starvation. 
He was forced to eat certain berries which he found grow¬ 
ing on wild bushes in his Ousab retreat. In this way he 
discovered that they were possessed of stimulating—or, as 
he called it, magical—properties. Later he tried roasting 
them and boiling them in water. He got even better re¬ 
sults. Next he prescribed the drink for those of his former 
patients who came to visit him, and these carried back such 
stories of benefits received that Omar was invited to return 
in triumph to Mocha, where a monastery was built in his 
honor and he himself was made a saint. 

There are several versions of this legend. One ascribes 
the discovery of the drink to an Arabian herdsman in upper 
Egypt, or Abyssinia, who complained to the abbot of a 
neighboring monastery that the goats confined to his care 
became strangely frolicsome after eating the berries of wild 
shrubs found near their feeding grounds. The abbot tried 
the berries on himself, and, being astonished at their ex¬ 
hilarating effects, experimented by boiling them in water 


2 


A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE 


and ordering the decoction served to his monks, who too 
often fell asleep over their nightly religious ceremonies. 
Thereafter the monks found no difficulty in keeping awake. 

About 1300, it is recorded that the coffee drink was a 
popular decoction among the churchmen. It was made from 
the roasted berries, crushed with a mortar and pestle, the 
powder being placed in boiling water and the drink taken 
down, grounds and all. 

About 1454, Sheik Gemalledin, mufti of Aden, having dis¬ 
covered the virtues of the coffee berry on a journey to Abys¬ 
sinia, sanctioned the secular use of coffee in Arabia Felix. 
It quickly reached Mecca and Medina. About 1500, the 
propagation of the plant had spread from Abyssinia through 
Arabia and into Ceylon. 

Early Coffee Persecutions 

In 1511, soon after the drink had reached Cairo, and the 
coffee house had become a favorite resort, Kair Bey, gov¬ 
ernor of Mecca, being outraged by the extent to which the 
new drink was being consumed by clergy and laymen, called 
a consultation of lawyers, physicians, and leading citizens, 
and succeeded in browbeating a majority into issuing an 
indictment of the beverage, while he issued an edict pro¬ 
hibiting its use. His master, the sultan of Cairo, ordered 
it revoked shortly thereafter, and Kair Bey subsequently 
came to an inglorious end, being first exposed as “an ex¬ 
tortioner and a public robber” and then slowly “tortured to 
death.” 

In 1524, the kadi of Mecca tried his hand at closing the 
coffee houses, because of disorders, but permitted coffee 
drinking in private. By 1532, the coffee house had taken 
root in Damascus and Aleppo. In 1534, a religious fanatic 
denounced coffee in Cairo, and led a mob against the coffee 
houses, many of which were wrecked. The city was di¬ 
vided into two parties,—for and against coffee. To put an 
end tb the agitation, the chief judge invited the leading 


3 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


physicians to a conference, and at the end not only served 
coffee to all present, but drank some himself. 

In 1554, the first coffee houses were opened in Constanti¬ 
nople by Shemsi of Damascus and Hekem of Aleppo. Here, 
too, religious zealots soon became jealous of their popular 
appeal, and about 1570 they put forth the argument that 
roasted coffee was a kind of charcoal, and, as the Koran 
forbade the use of charcoal among the other unsanitary 
foods, the use of coffee was against the law of the Koran. 
The mufti was so impressed by this that he ruled that coffee 
was forbidden by the law of the Prophet. 

The prohibition was more honored in the breach than in 
the observance. Coffee drinking continued in secret, instead 
of in the open; and when Amurath III, about 1580, at the 
further solicitation of the churchmen, declared that coffee 
should be classed as a wine, also forbidden by Mohammed, 
and ordered all coffee houses suppressed, the people only 
smiled and persisted in their disobedience. The civil offi¬ 
cers, finding it useless to try to destroy the custom, winked 
at violations of the law, and, for a consideration, permitted 
the sale of coffee privately; so that many Ottoman “speak¬ 
easies” sprang up,—places where coffee might be had be¬ 
hind shut doors, shops where it was sold in back rooms. 

This was enough to reestablish the coffee houses by de¬ 
grees. The prohibition was repealed de facto, if not de 
jure. Then came a mufti less scrupulous or more knowing 
than his predecessor, who declared that coffee was not to 
be looked upon as coal, and that the drink made from it 
was not forbidden by the law. There was a general re¬ 
newal of coffee drinking; religious devotees, preachers, law¬ 
yers, and the mufti himself indulging in it, their example 
being followed by the whole court and the city. 

First Printed References 

The first printed reference to coffee appeared as chaube in 
Rauwolf’s Travels, published in German at Frankfort and 


4 


A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE 


Lauingen in 1582. Rauwolf was a German physician and 
botanist, who made a journey to the Levant in 1573. 

The first authentic account of the origin of coffee was 
written by the sheik Abd-al-Kadir, in an Arabian manu¬ 
script still preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. 

The first printed reference to coffee in English appeared 
as chaoua in a note of Paludanus in Linschoten’s Travels, 
translated from the Dutch and published in London in 
1598. 

About 1600, coffee cultivation was introduced into south¬ 
ern India by a Moslem pilgrim, Baba Budan. 

The first printed reference to coffee in English, employ¬ 
ing the modern form of the word, appeared in W. Parry’s 
book, Sherley’s Travels, as coffe, in 1601. In 1610, Sir 
George Sandys in his Travels recorded, “The Turks sip a 
drink called coffa (of the berry that it is made of) in little 
china dishes, as hot as they can suffer it.” Francis Bacon 
also wrote in 1627, “They have in Turkey a drink called 
coffa made of a berry of the same name, as black as soot, 
and of a strong scent. This drink comforteth the brain and 
heart and helpeth digestion.” In 1632, Burton, in his 
Anatomy of Melancholy, wrote, “The Turks have a drink 
called coffa, so named from a berry black as soot and as 
bitter.” 

Coffee Baptized by the Pope 

The news of coffee caused early dissensions in Italy. Be¬ 
cause coffee drinking originated in Mohammedan lands, 
many churchmen in the 16th century were concerned about 
the propriety of permitting its use in Christendom, denounc¬ 
ing it as an invention of Satan. Discussion arose, and the 
disputants appealed to Pope Clement VIII for a decision. 
The pope wisely decided to drink some before committing 
himself. 

After imbibing a steaming beaker, according to the much 
quoted legend, the pope exclaimed, “Why, this Satan’s drink 


5 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


is so delicious that it would be a pity to let the infidels have 
exclusive use of it! We shall fool Satan by baptizing it, 
and making it a truly Christian beverage.” This he did, 
and added the Church’s seal of approval to the waxing 
popularity of the harmless and invigorating decoction. Cof¬ 
fee was introduced into Venice in 1615. 

The drink was brought to England by Canopios, a Cre¬ 
tan student at Oxford, in 1637. A Dutch merchant offered 
beans from Mocha at public sale in Amsterdam in 1640, 
although the drink was introduced into Holland as early 
as 1616. Coffee came to France in 1644. In 1645, the first 
coffee house was opened in Venice. 

The First London Coffee House 
A Jew named Jacobs opened the first coffee house in 
England, at Oxford, in 1650. The first coffee house in 
London was opened by Pasqua Rosee, a Greek youth, 
body servant to Daniel Edwards, a London merchant who 
brought the boy back from Smyrna with him. When in the 
Levant, Mr. Edwards had acquired the coffee habit. 
In London, Pasqua was wont to prepare the beverage 
for his master daily. The novelty of the drink caused 
the Edwards house to be overrun with company, and Ed¬ 
wards, in self-defense, set the youth up in a shed or tent 
in St. Michaels Alley, Cornhill, opposite the church. Here, 
in the same year, Pasqua Rosee issued the first advertise¬ 
ment for coffee in English. It was in the form of a hand¬ 
bill acclaiming “The Vertue of the Coffee Drink.” After 
leaving England, Pasqua Rosee went to Holland and opened 
a coffee house there. 

First Newspaper Advertisement for Coffee 
The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appeared in 
the Publick Adviser, London, May 19, 1657. It was as fol¬ 
lows: 

In Bartholomew Lane on the back side of the Old Exchange, 
the drink called Coffee (which is a very wholesome and Physical 


6 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



The Vertue of the CO FFE E Drink. 

Firft publiepeiy mad: and fold in England, by (P.j ifqtta <%ofec. 


, r ]P HC Grain or Berry called Coffee, groweth upon little Trees, 
A only in the Deferts of babied 

It is brought from thence, and drunk generally throughout 
all the Grand Seigniors Dominions. 

I. is a fimple innocent thing, compofed into a Drink, by being dry- 
ed in an Oven, and ground to Powder,and boiled up with Spring wa¬ 
ter, and about half a pint of it to be drunk, falling an hour beforehand 
not Edtingan hour after, and to be taken as hoc as pofsibly can be en¬ 
dured; the which will never fetch the skin off the mouth,or raifeany 
Bhftrrsjby re fon of chat Heat, 

The Turks drink at meals and other times, is ufually Water, and 
their Dyec confill; much of % the Crudities whereof are very 
much corrected by this Drink. ;j 

The quality of this Drink is cofcl and Dryi and though it be a 
Dryer, yet it neither />rdfr,Tior inflames more then hot Tojfet. 
xjtfipdoieth the Orifice of theStomack, and fortifies the heat with- 
it s very good o'help digeflionj and therefore ofgreat ufe to be 
bout 5 or 4 a Clock afternoon, as well as in the morning, v. 
ucn quickens the Spirits , and makes the Heart Ugbtfome* 

, is good agatnft lore Eys, and the better if you hold your Head o- 
£nt, and take in the Sceem that way. 

It fuppretfeth Fumes exceedingly, and therefore good againflthe 
Ttead-acb, and will very much flop any 'Drfluxion of Rheums, that diftii 
from toe H ad upon the Stomack, and fo prevent and help Qonjumpti- 
om'and the Cough cf the Lungs . 

It is excellent to prevent and cure the Vropfy, Gout, and Scurvy, 

It is known by experience to be better then any other Drying 
Drink for People in years, or Children thac have any running humors up¬ 
on them, as the lyings Evil. &c. 

It is very good to prevent Mif carryings in (bill-bearing Women. 

It is a moll excellent Remedy agaioft the Spleen, Hypocondriad[ 
Winds , or the like. 

It will prevent Vroteftntfs , and make one ficforbulincs,if one have 
occafion to Watcl^ and therefore you are not to Drink ot it after Supper , 
unlefs you intend to be watchful for it will hinder ileep for} or 4 hours. 

It is obferVti that in Turkey > where this is generally drunk , that they are 
not trobled -frith the Stone , Gout, Dropfie, or ScurVty, and that their 
Skins are exceeding deer and white. 

It is neither Laxative nor <J(efiringent. 

Made and Sold in Sr. Michaels Alley in Cornhill, by Pafqua Poftt, 
at the Signc of his own Head, 


First Advertisement for Coffee (1G52) 

Handbill used by Pasqua, who opened the first coffee house 
in London. (Reproduced from the original in the British 
Museum.) 




■ 

• - . ... 


• - . . ■ v 








' 





- .... 

* • 

- 





' 1 ' ' ' • ' - 1 4 ' •. > 

.’V s ; • 




A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE 


drink, having many excellent vertues), closes the Orifice of the 
Stomack, fortifies the heat within, helpeth Digestion, quickneth 
the Spirits, maketh the heart lightsom, is good against Eye-sores, 
Coughs, or Colds, Rhumes, Consumptions, Head-ach, Dropsie, Gout, 
Scurvy, Kings Evil, and many others is to he sold both in the 
morning and at three of the clock in the afternoon. 

Meanwhile, in 1656, coffee was subjected to further per¬ 
secution in Constantinople, where the grand vizier Kuprili, 
for political reasons, suppressed the coffee houses and pro- 
habited the use of coffee. For the first violation the punish¬ 
ment inflicted was cudgeling; for the second offense the 
offender was sewed in a leather bag and thrown into the 
Bosporous. 

Despite the severe penalties staring them in the face, vio¬ 
lations of the law were plentiful among the people of Con¬ 
stantinople. Venders of the beverage appeared in the market 
places with “large copper vessels with fire under them; and 
those who had a mind to drink were invited to step into any 
neighboring shop where every one was welcome on such an 
account.” 

Later, Kuprili, having assured himself that the coffee 
houses were no longer a menace to his policies, permitted the 
free use of the beverage that he had previously forbidden. 

At this time to refuse or to neglect to give coffee to their 
wives was a legitimate cause for divorce among the Turks. 
The men made promise when marrying never to let their 
wives be without coffee. “That,” says Fulbert de Monteith, 
“is perhaps more prudent than to swear fidelity.” 

In 1657, coffee appeared in Paris, but it was not served 
publicly until introduced by Soliman Aga, the Turkish am¬ 
bassador, in 1669. He made it in Turkish style, had it 
served by black slaves, “on bended knees, in tiny cups of 
egg-shell porcelain, and poured out in saucers of gold and 
silver, placed on embroidered silk doylies, fringed with 
gold bullion.” Naturally, his sumptuous coffee functions 
became the rage of Paris. 


7 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


The coffee drink came to North America in 1668. It 
was first sold in Boston in 1670. 

Opposition to London Coffee Houses 
Coffee and the coffee houses were fiercely attacked by 
publicans and ale-house keepers in London between the 
Restoration and 1675. A series of broadsides and tracts 
were launched against them. They bore such titles as, “A 
cup of coffee: or coffee in its colours,” “A Broadside against 
coffee, or the marriage of the Turk,” and “The Women’s 
petition against coffee,” the latter presenting the argument 
that coffee made men as “unfruitful as the deserts whence 
that unhappy berry is said to be brought.” 

These were ably answered by coffee’s defenders, and the 
drink continued to find favor in spite of its detractors. 

Early Parisian Coffee Houses 
The beverage was introduced into Germany in 1670, and 
the next year the first coffee house in France was opened 
in Marseilles. Pascal, an Armenian, opened the first coffee 
house in Paris, at the Fair of St. Germain, in 1672. The 
progenitor of the real French cafe was the Procope, opened 
in Paris in 1689 by Francois Procope, a lemonade vender 
of Florence. 

The coffee house spread rapidly in France. In the reign 
of Louis XV, there were over 600 cafes in Paris. These 
became famous: Tour d’Argent, the Royal Drummer, Cafe 
Foy, Regence, Momus, Cafe de Paris, Voisins, Cafe de la 
Paix, and Tortoni. At the close of the 18th century there 
were over 800 cafes in Paris; in 1843, there were over 3,000. 
They played an important part in the French Revolution, 
in the development of French literature and of the stage. 
Among the notables that frequented them were Voltaire, 
Rousseau, Fontenelle, Beaumarchais, Diderot, Desmoulins, 
Napoleon, Marie Antoinette, de Musset, Victor Hugo, Gau¬ 
tier, Talleyrand, Marat, Robespierre, Danton, and Rossini. 
While it is recorded that coffee made slow progress with 


8 


A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE 


the court of Louis' XIV, the next king, Louis XV, to please 
his mistress du Barry, gave it a tremendous vogue. It is 
related that he spent $15,000 a year for coffee for his 
daughters. 

Coffee Houses Suppressed 

In 1675, Charles II of England issued a proclamation to 
dose all London coffee houses as places of sedition. By 
that time there were hundreds of them, and they were known 
as penny universities. The king’s proclamation was so un¬ 
popular in nearly all quarters that it stands today as one 
of the worst political blunders in history. Upon petition 
of the coffee traders, the order was revoked eleven days 
after issue. 

Some Famous Coffee Houses 

The London coffee houses of the 17th and 18th centuries 
were centers of wit and learning. They were referred to 
as the “penny universities” because they were great schools 
of conversation, and the entrance fee was only a penny. 
Twopence was the usual price of a dish of coffee or tea, 
this charge also covering newspapers and lights. Quoting 
a poem of the period: 

So great a universitie 

I think there ne’re was any, 

In which you may a Scholar he 
For spending of a penny. 

By 1715, there were 2,000 coffee houses in London. 
Every profession, trade, class, and party had its coffee house. 
Men had their coffee houses as now they have their clubs; 
sometimes contented with one, sometimes belonging to three 
or four. Johnson, for instance, was connected with St. 
James’s, the Turk’s Head, the Bedford, Peek’s, besides the 
taverns which he frequented. Addison and Steele used But¬ 
ton’s; Swift, Button’s, the Smyrna, and St. James’s; Dryden, 
Will’s; Pope, Will’s and Button’s; Goldsmith, the St. James’s 
and the Chapter; Fielding, the Bedford; Hogarth, the Bed- 


9 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


ford and Slaughter’s; Sheridan, the Piazza; Thurlow, 
Nando’s. 

Among the famous English coffee houses of the 17 th-18th- 
century period were St. James’s, Will’s, Garraway’s, 
White’s, Slaughter’s, the Grecian, Button’s, Lloyd’s, Tom’s, 
and Don Saltero’s. 

St. James’s was a Whig house frequented by members of 
Parliament, with a fair sprinkling of literary stars. Garra¬ 
way’s catered to the gentry of the period, many of whom 
naturally had Tory proclivities. 

One of the notable coffee houses of Queen Anne’s reign 
was Button’s. Here Addison could be found almost every 
afternoon and evening, along with Steele, Davenant, Carey, 
Philips, and other kindred minds. Pope was a member of 
the same coffee house club for a year, but his inborn irasci¬ 
bility eventually led him to drop out of it. 

At Button’s, a lion’s head, designed by Hogarth after the 
Lion of Venice, “a proper emblem of knowledge and ac¬ 
tion, being all head and paws,” was set up to receive letters 
and papers for the Guardian. The Toiler and the Specta¬ 
tor were born in the coffee house, and probably English 
prose would never have received the impetus given it by 
the essays of Addison and Steele had it not been for coffee¬ 
house associations. 

Pope’s famous Rape of the Lock grew out of coffee-house 
gossip. The poem itself contains one charming passage on 
coffee: 

For lo! the board with cups and spoons is crowned; 

The berries crackle and the mill turns round; 

On shining altars of japan they raise 
The silver lamp: the fiery spirits blaze: 

From silver spouts the grateful liquors glide, 

While China’s earth receives the smoking tide. 

At once they gratify their scent and taste, 

And frequent cups prolong the rich repast. 

Straight hover round the fair her airy band; 

Some, as she sipped, the fuming liquor fanned: 


10 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



\ Coffee House in the Time of Charles II 
From a woodcut of 1674 








































































































































































































































































































































A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE 


Some o’er lier lap their careful plumes displayed, 
Trembling, and conscious of the rich brocade. 

Coffee (which makes the politician wise, 

And see through all things with his half-shut eyes) 

Sent up in vapors to the baron’s brain 
New stratagems, the radiant lock to gain. 

Another frequenter of the coffee houses of London, when 
he had the money to do so, was Daniel Defoe, whose Rob¬ 
inson Crusoe was the precursor of the English novel. Henry 
Fielding, one of the greatest of all English novelists, loved 
the life of the more bohemian coffee houses, and was, in fact, 
induced to write his first great novel, Joseph Andrews, 
through coffee-house criticisms of Richardson’s Pamela. 

Other frequenters of- the coffee houses of the period were 
Thomas Gray and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. Garrick was 
often to be seen at Tom’s in Birchin Lane, where also Chat- 
terton might have been found on many an evening before 
his untimely death. 

The second half of the 18th century was covered by the 
reigns of the Georges. The coffee houses were still an im¬ 
portant factor in London life, but were influenced somewhat 
by the development of gardens, in which were served tea, 
chocolate, and other drinks, as well as coffee. At the coffee 
houses themselves, while coffee remained the favorite bev¬ 
erage, the proprietors, in the hope of increasing their patron¬ 
age, began to serve wine, ale, and other liquors. This seems 
to have been the first step toward the decay of the coffee 
house. 

The coffee houses, however, continued to be the centers 
of intellectual life. When Samuel Johnson and David Gar- 
lick came together to London, literature was temporarily in 
a bad way, and the hack writers dwelt in Grub Street. 

It was not until after Johnson had met with some suc¬ 
cess, and had established the first of his coffee-house clubs 
at the Turk’s Head, that literature again became a fash¬ 
ionable profession. 


11 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


This really famous literary club met at the Turk’s Head 
from 1763 to 1783. Among the most notable members were 
Johnson, the arbiter of English prose; Oliver Goldsmith; 
Boswell, the biographer; Burke, the orator; Garrick, the 
actor; and Sir Joshua Reynolds, the painter. Among the 
later members were Gibbon, the historian, and Adam Smith, 
the political economist. 

Certain it is that during the sway of the English coffee 
house, and at least partly through its influence, England 
produced a better prose literature, as embodied alike in her 
essays, literary criticisms, and novels, than she ever had 
produced before. 

The advent of the pleasure garden brought coffee out into 
the open in England; and one of the reasons why gardens, 
such as Ranelagh and Vauxhall, began to be more frequented 
than the coffee houses was that they were popular resorts 
for women as well as for men. All kinds of beverages were 
served in them, and soon the women began to favor tea as 
an afternoon drink. At least, the great development in the 
use of tea dates from this period, and many of these resorts 
called themselves tea gardens. 

After the Turks failed in their attack on Vienna in 1683, 
Kolschitzky, a hero of the siege, was given the supplies of 
green coffee which they left in their flight, and with them 
he opened the first coffee house in Vienna. 

Early Coffee Propagation 

In 1696 and again in 1699, the Dutch introduced the 
propagation of coffee into Java. The same year the first 
coffee house (the King’s Arms) was opened in New York. 

“Java” coffee seeds were received at the Amsterdam 
Botanical Gardens in 1706, and in 1714 a plant raised from 
them was presented to Louis XIV and by him nurtured in 
the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. It was a seedling of this 
plant that Captain Gabriel De Clieu carried to Martinique 
in 1723, sharing his drinking water with it on a long voyage. 


12 


A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE 


In 1715, coffee cultivation was first introduced into Haiti 
and Santo Domingo. Later came hardier plants from Mar¬ 
tinique. In 1715-17, the French Company of the Indies 
introduced the cultivation of the plant into the isle of Bour¬ 
bon (now Reunion) by a ship captain named Dufougeret- 
Grenier from St. Malo. It did so well that nine years later 
the island began to export coffee. 

The Dutch brought the cultivation of coffee to Surinam 
in 1718. The first coffee plantation in Brazil was started 
at Para in 1723 with plants brought from French Guiana, 
but it was not a success. The English brought the plant to 
Jamaica in 1730. In 1740, Spanish missionaries introduced 
coffee cultivation into the Philippines from Java. In 1748, 
Don Jose Antonio Gelabert introduced coffee into Cuba, 
bringing the seed from Santo Domingo. In 1750, the Dutch 
extended the cultivation of the plant to the Celebes. Coffee 
was introduced into Guatemala about 1750-60. The inten¬ 
sive cultivation in Brazil dates from the efforts begun in the 
Portuguese colonies in Para and Amazonas in 1752. Porto 
Rico began the cultivation of coffee about 1755. In 1760, 
Joao Alberto Castello Branco brought to Rio de Janeiro a 
coffee tree from Goa, Portuguese India. The news spread 
that the soil and climate of Brazil were particularly adapted 
to the cultivation of coffee. Molke, a Belgian monk, presented 
some seeds to the Capuchin monastery at Rio in 1774. Later, 
the bishop of Rio, Joachim Bruno, became a patron of the 
plant and encouraged its propagation in Rio, Minas, Es- 
pirito Santo, and Sao Paulo. The Spanish voyager, Don 
Francisco Xavier Navarro, is credited with the introduction 
of coffee into Costa Rica from Cuba in 1779. In Vene¬ 
zuela, the industry was started near Caracas by a priest, 
Jose Antonio Mohedano, with seed brought from Martinique 
in 1784. 

Coffee cultivation in Mexico began in 1790, the seed be¬ 
ing brought from the West Indies. In 1817, Don Juan An¬ 
tonio Gomez instituted intensive cultivation in the state of 

13 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


Vera Cruz. In 1825 the cultivation of the plant was be¬ 
gun in the Hawaiian Islands with seeds from Rio de 
Janeiro. The English began to cultivate coffee in India in 
1840. In 1852, coffee cultivation was begun in Salvador 
with plants brought from Cuba. In 1878, the English began 
the propagation of coffee in British Central Africa, but it 
was not until 1901 that coffee cultivation was introduced 
into British East Africa from Reunion. In 1887, the French 
introduced the plant into Tonkin, Indo-China. 

Frederick, the Great Beer Drinker 

Germany also had its attempts at coffee suppression. 
Frederick the Great, of Prussia, had a violent scorn for any 
beverage so innocuous as coffee—until he found in its in¬ 
creasing popularity, despite his tirades and ukases against 
it, a comfortable source of revenue to the crown. 

Following is the text of Frederick’s celebrated Coffee and 
Beer Manifesto issued September 13, 1777, a curiosity: 

It is disgusting to notice the increase in the quantity of coffee 
used by my subjects and the amount of money that goes out of 
the country in consequence. Everybody is using coffee. If pos¬ 
sible, this must be prevented. My people must drink beer. His 
Majesty was brought up on beer, and so were his ancestors and 
his officers. Many battles have been fought and won by soldiers 
nourished on beer; and the king does not believe that coffee¬ 
drinking soldiers can be depended upon to endure hardship or to 
beat his enemies in case of the occurrence of another war. 

Later, in 1781, Frederick established state coffee-roasting 
plants and made the coffee business a government monopoly. 
The common people were forbidden to roast their own cof¬ 
fee. “Coffee smellers” were employed to seek out violations 
of the law. In 1784, Maximilian Frederick, elector of 
Cologne, prohibited the use of coffee except by the well-to- 
do. The decree failed of its purpose. 

Holland early adopted the coffee house, and the Dutch 
were the pioneer coffee traders. History records no intol¬ 
erance of coffee in Holland. 


14 


COFFEE 


MERCHANDISING 



02 

o ^ 

r— 1 ^ 

C* 'g 

I- c 

l- ctf 


w 

< 

& 

pH 

pH 


72 

< 


c4 

>»>- 

p-t> 

rH 

O c3 


0) 

c 

S— 

c 

a 

H-> 

72 

02 

£ 




o 

o 


72 

ctf 

rj & 

t* £. 


M 


O 

c 

02 


3 

o 

72 

02 

,c 


H 


§£ 

t> 5-0 




C/2 




72 

H 

K 


72 

cj w 

*g 

02 ^ 

cj C 
C C0 

72 * 

73 t- 
pC co 
+->t- 

°+n 

0)3 

72 O 

3-0 

O c3 

. 8 ® 

O +-> 

c$ 

£ 


— &) 
O T 

r \» *h 

8 o 


k-H 


02 

£ 

H 












































































































































































































































































































A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE 


If Vienna helped make coffee famous, London and Paris 
gave us the last word in coffee houses. The two most pic¬ 
turesque chapters in the history of coffee have to do with 
the period of the old London and Paris coffee houses of the 
17th and 18th centuries. Much of the poetry and romance 
of coffee centers around this time. The London coffee house 
was, however, a male institution; indeed, out of it came the 
solid British club. The Parisian coffee house, on the other 
hand, was, like everything French, distinctly Gallic. Women 
were welcome, and it is not to be wondered that the French 
adaptation of the oriental coffee house became in time a 
much more esthetic and artistic institution,—the unique 
French cafe. 

Early American Coffee Houses 

The early history of coffee in the United States centers 
around the coffee houses of New York, Boston, and Phila¬ 
delphia. These were patterned largely after the English 
prototype. Gradually they became taverns, and not in¬ 
frequently evolved into hotels. In Colonial days, Ameri¬ 
cans were also large consumers of tea, and, indeed, were in 
a fair way to become a nation of tea drinkers, when King 
George III perpetrated that fatal blunder known as the 
Stamp Act. The Boston Tea Party of 1773 cast the die 
for coffee. It became a patriotic duty to drink something 
else, and coffee didn’t have to come from England. Thus 
was started a national habit which made coffee our national 
drink. So, when the coffee house disappeared, the coffee 
drink was found to be strongly intrenched in the homes of 
the people, and it has stayed there ever since,—“King of the 
American breakfast table.” 

In Boston, the London, Crown, and the Gutteridge were 
the best-known early coffee houses. Later came the King’s 
Head, Indian Queen, and Green Dragon. The Exchange 
Coffee House, erected in 1808, was a seven-story skyscraper, 
and was probably the largest and most costly commercial 


15 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


coffee house ever built. It was a center of marine intelli¬ 
gence, like Lloyd’s of London. 

The burghers of New Amsterdam began to substitute cof¬ 
fee for “must,” or beer, in 1668. In 1683, the year follow¬ 
ing William Penn’s settlement on the Delaware, we find him 
buying supplies of coffee in the New York market, and 
paying for them at the rate of 18 shillings and 9 pence 
(about $4.68) a pound. 

The King’s Arms (1696) was the first coffee house in 
New York. It was followed by the historic Merchants 
Coffee house (sometimes called “the birthplace of our Un¬ 
ion”), the Exchange, Whitehall, Bums, and Tontine houses. 

The coffee houses of early Philadelphia loom large in the 
history of the city and the republic. Picturesque in them¬ 
selves, with their distinctive colonial architecture, their asso¬ 
ciations were also romantic. Many a civic, sociological, and 
industrial reform came into existence in the low-ceilinged, 
sanded-floor main rooms of the city’s early coffee houses. 
One of those reforms was the ultimate abandonment of the 
public slave auctions which were held regularly on a plat¬ 
form in the street before the second London coffee house, 
kept by William Bradford, the printer. 

There is this to be remarked in closing this brief sketch 
of the early history of coffee: In Europe and in America 
the houses where the coffee drink was first served became 
forums of democracy and temples of free speech. Wherever 
introduced, coffee has spelled revolution. It ushered in the 
Commonwealth in England, it was first aid to the French 
Revolution, and it undoubtedly helped make the American 
republic. 



16 








COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Coffea Aeabica (Costa Rica) Flower and Fruit 






CHAPTER II 


THE BOTANY OF COFFEE 

Its complete classification by class, sub-class, order, 
family, genus, and species — How Coffea arabica 
grows, flowers, and bears — Other species and 
hybrids. 

T HE coffee tree, scientifically known as Coffea arabica, 
belongs to the two-leaved class of a large sub-king¬ 
dom of vegetable plants known as the Angiospernuz. 
Because it bears a flower arranged with its corolla all in one 
piece, forming a tube-shaped arrangement, it is further 
classified as Sympetalce or Metachlamydece, »which means 
that its petals are united. 

Pursuing its classification still further, botanists place it 
in the order Rubiales and in the family Rubiacece or madder 
family, which also includes various herbs, and a few Ameri¬ 
can plants, like the familiar bluets or Quaker ladies, and 
partridge berries. Quinine and ipecac are also members of 
this family. 

Botany divides all families into smaller sections known 
as genera, and the coffee plant belongs to the genus Coffea. 
Under this genus are several sub-genera, and to the sub¬ 
genus Eucoffea belongs the common coffee, which the trade 
and the general public know best, Coffea arabica. 

Coffea arabica is the original species indigenous to Abys¬ 
sinia and Arabia, and for many years it was known as 
“Java” when it came from Java and “Mocha” when it 
came from Arabia. The Arabica seed transplanted to dif¬ 
ferent soils and climates takes on local characteristics, and 
this gives us Bourbon, Mexican, Coban, Blue Mountain, 
Bogota, Bourbon Santos, etc., as the case may be. 

There are many other species of coffee besides Arabica. 
They haven’t been described frequently, because, with one 


17 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


or two exceptions, they are commercially unimportant. In¬ 
deed, all botanists do not agree in their classification of the 
species and varieties of the Coffea genus. The systematic 
division of this interesting genus is far from finished; in 
fact, it may be said hardly to be begun. 

Coffea arabica we know best because of the important 
role it plays in commerce. 

Complete Classification of Coffee 


Kingdom .. Vegetable 

Sub-kingdom . Angiospet'tnae 

Class. Dicotyledoneae 

Sub-class . Sympetalae or Metachlamydeae 

Order . Rubiales 

Family. Rubiaceae 

Genus. Coffea 

Sub-genus . Eucoffea 

'Species . C. arabica 


The coffee plant most cultivated for its berries is, as al¬ 
ready stated, Coffea arabica, which is found in tropical re¬ 
gions, although it can grow in temperate climates. Unlike 
most plants that grow best in the Tropics, it can stand low 
temperatures. It requires shade when it grows in hot, low- 
lying districts; but, when it grows on elevated land, it 
thrives without such protection. There are about eight 
recognized species of Coffea. 

Coffea arabica is a shrub with evergreen leaves, and 
reaches a height of fourteen to twenty feet when fully grown. 
The shrub produces branches of two forms, known as up¬ 
rights and laterals. When young, the plants have a main 
stem, the upright; which, however, eventually sends out side 
shoots, the laterals. The laterals may send out other later¬ 
als, known as secondary laterals, but no lateral can ever 
produce an upright. The laterals are produced in pairs 
and are opposite, the pairs being borne in whorls around 
the stem. The laterals are produced only when the 
joint of the upright, to which they are attached, is young; 
and, if they are broken off at that point, the upright 


18 











THE BOTANY OF COFFEE 

has no power to reproduce them. The upright can 
produce new uprights also; but, if an upright is cut off, the 
laterals at that position tend to thicken up. This is very 
desirable, as the laterals produce the flowers, which seldom 
appear on the uprights. This fact is utilized in pruning 
the coffee tree, the uprights being cut back, the laterals then 
becoming more productive. Planters generally keep their 
trees pruned down to six to twelve feet. 

The leaves are lanceolate, or lance-shaped, being borne 
in pairs opposite each other. They are three to six inches 
in length, thin, but of firm texture. They are very dark 
green on the upper surface, but much lighter underneath. 
The margin of the leaf is entire and wavy. In some tropi¬ 
cal countries, the natives brew a coffee tea from the leaves 
of the coffee tree. 

The coffee flowers are small, white, and very fragrant, 
having a delicate characteristic odor. They are borne in 
the axils of the leaves in clusters, and several crops are 
produced in one season, depending on the conditions of 
heat and moisture that prevail in the particular season. The 
different blossomings are classed as main blossoming and 
smaller blossomings. In semi-dry, high districts, as in 
Costa Rica or Guatemala, there is one blossoming season, 
about March, and flowers and fruit are not found together, 
as a rule, on the trees; but in lowland plantations, where 
rain is perennial, blooming and fruiting continue practi¬ 
cally all the year, and ripe fruits, green fruits, open flow¬ 
ers, and flower buds are to be found at the same time on the 
same branchlet, not mixed together, but in the order indi¬ 
cated. 

The flowers are tubular, the tube of the corolla dividing 
into five white segments. The number of petals is not at 
all constant, not even for flowers of the same tree. 

While the usual color of the coffee flower is white, the 
fresh stamens and pistils may have a greenish tinge, and in 
some cultivated species the corolla is pale pink. 


19 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


The size and condition of the flowers are entirely de¬ 
pendent on the weather. The flowers are sometimes very 
small, very fragrant, and very numerous; while at other 
times, when the weather is not hot and dry, they are very 
large, but not so numerous. Both these kinds “set fruit,” 
as it is called; but at times, especially in a very dry season, 
the trees bear flowers that are few in number, small, and 
imperfectly formed, the petals frequently being green in¬ 
stead of white. These flowers do not set fruit. The flow¬ 
ers that open on a dry sunny day show a greater yield of 
fruit than those which open on a wet day, as the first men¬ 
tioned have a better chance of being pollinated by the in¬ 
sects and the wind. 

After the flowers droop, there appear what are commer¬ 
cially known as coffee berries. Botanically speaking, 
“berry” is a misnomer. These little fruits are not berries, 
such as are well represented by the grape; but are drupes, 
which are better exemplified by the cherry and the peach. 
In the course of six or seven months, these coffee 
drupes develop into little red balls about the size of 
an ordinary cherry; but, instead of being round, they are 
somewhat ellipsoidal, having at the outer end a small um¬ 
bilicus. The drupe of the coffee usually has two locules, 
each containing a little “stone” (the seed and its parchment 
covering), from which the coffee bean (seed) is obtained. 
Actually, then, the coffee berry is not a berry but a “drupe”; 
also, the coffee bean is not a “bean” but a seed. 

Some few drupes contain three beans, while others, at 
the outer ends of the branches, contain only one round bean, 
known as the peaberry. The number of pickings corre¬ 
sponds to the different blossomings in the same season; and 
one tree of the species Arabica may yield from one to twelve 
pounds a year. 

In countries like India and Africa, the birds and monkeys 
eat the ripe coffee berries. The so-called “monkey coffee” 
of India, according to Arnold, is the undigested coffee beans 


20 


THE BOTANY OF COFFEE 


that passed through the alimentary canal of the animal. 

The outer fleshy part or pulp surrounding the coffee beans 
is at present of no commercial importance. From the hu¬ 
man standpoint, the pulp, or pericarp, as it is scientifically 
called, is rather an annoyance, as it must be removed in 
order to procure the beans. This is done in one of two 
ways. The first is known as the dry method, in which the 
entire fruit is allowed to dry, and is then cracked open. The 
second is called the wet method; the pericarp is removed by 
machine, and two wet, slimy seed packets are obtained. 
These packets, which look for all the world like seeds, are 
allowed to dry in such a way that fermentation takes place. 
This rids them of all the slime; and, after they are thor¬ 
oughly dry, the endocarp, the so-called parchment covering, 
is easily cracked open and removed. At the same time that 
the parchment is removed, a thin silvery membrane, known 
scientifically as the spermoderm (which means seed skin), 
referred to in the trade as the silver skin, beneath the parch¬ 
ment, comes off too. There are always small fragments of 
this silver skin to be found in the groove of the coffee bean 
contained within the parchment packet. 

We have said that the coffee tree yields from one to 
twelve pounds a year, but of course this varies with the In¬ 
dividual tree and also with the region. In some countries 
the whole year’s yield is less than 200 pounds an acre, 
while there is on record a patch in Brazil which yields about 
seventeen pounds a tree, bringing the acre yield much higher. 

The beans do not retain their vitality for planting for 
any considerable time; and, if they are thoroughly dried, or 
are kept for longer than three or four months, they are use¬ 
less for that purpose. It takes the seed about six weeks to 
germinate and to appear above ground. Trees raised from 
seed begin to blossom in about three years, but a good crop 
cannot be expected of them for the first five or six years. 
Their usefulness, save in exceptional cases, is ended in 
about thirty years. 


21 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


The coffee tree can be propagated other than by seeds. 
The upright branches may be used as slips, which, after 
taking root, will produce seed-bearing laterals. The laterals 
themselves cannot be used as slips. In Central America, 
the natives sometimes use coffee uprights for fences, and it 
is no uncommon sight to see the fence posts “growing.” 

Thus far there are 12 recognized varieties of Arabica, as 
follows: Laurina, Murta, Menosperma, Mokka, Purpures- 
cens, Variegata, Amarella, Bullata, AngustifoUa, Erecta, 
Maragogipe, and Columnaris. 

Two other species of coffee that have become better known 
in the trade are IJberica and Robusta. Liberica is a much 
larger and sturdier tree than Arabica, and sometimes reaches 
a height of thirty feet. Its leaves are twice as long, and the 
flowers are larger and borne in dense clusters. At any time 
during the season, the same tree may bear flowers, white or 
pinkish, and fragrant, or even green, together with fruits, 
some green, some ripe and of a brilliant red. The corolla 
has been known to have seven segments, though as a rule 
it has five. The fruits are large, round, and dull red; the 
pulps are not juicy, and are somewhat bitter. Unlike 
Coffea arabica, the ripened berries do not fall from the 
trees, and so the picking may be delayed at the planter’s con¬ 
venience. The Liberica bean produces a drink which is 
classed as inferior to Arabica by trade experts. 

The Robusta plant is larger than either Arabica or Libe¬ 
rica . The leaves of Robusta are much thinner than those 
of Liberica , though not so thin as those of Arabica. The 
tree, as a whole, is a very hardy variety, and bears blos¬ 
soms even when it is less than a year old. It blossoms 
throughout the entire year, the flowers having six-parted 
corollas. The berries are smaller than those of Liberica, but 
are much thinner skinned; so that the coffee bean is ac¬ 
tually not any smaller. They mature in ten months. Al¬ 
though the plants bear as early as the first year, the yield 
for the first two years is of no account, but by the fourth 


22 


THE BOTANY OF COFFEE 


year the crop is large. Recently cup tests have established 
high merits in certain strains of Robusta. A variety of 
Robust a called Canephora has flowers tinged with red, its 
unripe berries are purple, and the bean narrower and more 
oblong than Robusta. It grows well in high altitudes. 
Among the allied Robusta species are Uganda and Quillou. 

Experiments in coffee culture are constantly being made 
by well-known botanists, and some interesting hybrids have 
been produced, the most popular belonging to a crossing of 
Libei'ica and Arabica. Excelsa, an allied Liberica species, 
has also given much promise. 

A species of coffee growing wild in the Comoro Islands 
and Madagascar has been found practically caffein-free. 
Certain Porto Rico coffees are also very low in caffein con¬ 
tent. 



23 


















' 







































COFFEE MERCHANDISING 















CHAPTER III 


CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACOLOGY OF 
COFFEE 

The chief factors which enter into coffee goodness — 
Brief discussion of caffein and caffeol — Coffee’s 
place in a rational dietary — Latest scientific dis¬ 
coveries which establish the whole truth about coffee 
as a wholesome, satisfying drink for the great 
majority of people and cause it to be regarded as the 
servant, rather than the destroyer, of civilization. 

G ENERALLY speaking, the trade and the consumer 
are concerned chiefly with those factors which enter 
into coffee goodness. These are the caffein content 
and the caffeol. Caffein supplies the principal stimulant. 
It increases the capacity for muscular and mental work with¬ 
out harmful reaction. The caffeol supplies- the flavor and 
the aroma,—that indescribable oriental fragrance that woos 
us through the nostrils, forming one of the principal ele¬ 
ments that make up the lure of coffee. There are several 
other constituents, including certain innocuous so-called 
caffetannic acids, which, in combination with the caffeol, 
give the beverage its rare gustatory appeal. 

In the roasting of green coffee, part of the original caffein 
content is lost by sublimation (vaporizing), and caffeol is 
formed. Chemists recognize two groups of constituents 
which are formed during roasting and are soluble in water, 
—heavy extractives and light aromatic materials. 

The heavy extractives include caffein, mineral matter, pro¬ 
teins, caramel, and sugars, “caffetannic acid,” and various 
organic materials. Some fat will also be found in the 
average coffee brew, melted from the bean by the heated 
water and carried along with the solution. The light ex¬ 
tractives are collectively known as caffeol. 

Caffein has a slightly bitter taste, but, because of the 


25 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


small percentage present in a cup of coffee, it contributes 
little to its cup value. Nevertheless, it furnishes the stimu¬ 
lation for which coffee is generally consumed. The caffein 
content of Caffea arabica, green, is 1.5 percent. 

The mineral matter, together with certain decomposition 
and hydrolysis products of crude fiber and chlorogenic acid, 
contribute toward the astringency or bitterness of the cup. 
The proteins are present in such small quantity that their 
only role is to raise somewhat the almost negligible food 
value of a coffee infusion. The body, or what might be 
called the licorice-like character, of coffee is due to the 
presence of bodies of a glucosidic nature and to caramel. 
The degree to which a coffee is sweet-tasting or not is, of 
course, dependent upon its other characteristics, but prob¬ 
ably varies directly with the reducing sugar content. 

The term “caffetannic acid” is a misnomer, for the sub¬ 
stances called by this name are in all probability mainly 
coffalic and chlorogenic acids, neither of which is a true 
tannin, nor do they evince but few of the characteristic reac¬ 
tions of tannic acid. Some neutral coffees will show as high 
a “caffetannic acid” content as other acid-charactered ones. 
Careful chemical analysis has shown that the actual acidities 
of some East Indian coffees vary from 0.013 to 0.033 per¬ 
cent. These figures my be taken as reliable examples of 
the true acid content of coffee, and, though they seem very 
low, it is not at all incomprehensible that the acids they in¬ 
dicate produce the acidity in a cup of coffee. They prob¬ 
ably are mainly volatile organic acids together with other 
acidic-natured products of roasting. 

We know that very small quantities of acid are readily 
detected in fruit juices and beer, and that variation in their 
percentages is quickly noticed, while the neutralization of 
this small amount of acidity leaves an insipid drink. Hence 
it seems quite likely that this small acid content gives to the 
coffee brew its essential acidity. A few minor experiments 
on neutralization have proved the production of a very flat 


26 


CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE 


beverage by thus treating a coffee infusion. Acidity of cer¬ 
tain coffees most apparently should be attributed to such 
compounds rather than to the miscalled “caffetannic acid.” 
For personal proving of this statement, put a small pinch of 
the weakly alkalin baking soda (NaHC0 3 ) into a cup of 
coffee and note the difference that it makes. 

The light aromatic materials and other substances that 
are steam-distillable (i. e., which are driven off when coffee 
is concentrated by boiling) are important factors in determin¬ 
ing the individuality of coffees. These compounds (caffeol) 
vary greatly in the percentages present in different coffees, 
and thus are largely responsible for our ability to distinguish 
coffees in the cup. It is these compounds that supply the 
pleasingly aromatic and appetizing odor to coffee. 1 

Like all good things in life, the drinking of coffee may 
be abused. Indeed, those having an idiosyncratic suscepti¬ 
bility to alkaloids should be temperate in the use of tea, 
coffee, or cocoa. In every high-tensioned country, there is 
likely to be a small number of people who, because of cer¬ 
tain individual characteristics, cannot drink coffee at all. 
These belong to the abnormal minority of the human fam¬ 
ily. Some people cannot eat strawberries, but that would 
not be a valid reason for a general condemnation of straw¬ 
berries. One may be poisoned, says Thomas A. Edison, 
from too much food. Horace Fletcher was certain that over¬ 
feeding caused all our ills. Overindulgence in meat is 
likely to spell trouble for the strongest of us. Coffee is, 
perhaps, less often abused than wrongly accused. It all 
depends. A little more tolerance! 

Trading upon the credulity of the hypochondriac and 
the caffein-sensitive, in recent years there has appeared in 
America and abroad a curious collection of so-called coffee 
substitutes. They are “neither fish, nor flesh, nor good red 
herring.” Most of them have been shown by official gov¬ 
ernment analyses to be sadly deficient in food value, their 

1 Ukers: All About Coffee (p. 718-19, 1922). 

27 



COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


only alleged virtue. One of our contemporary attackers of 
the national beverage bewails the fact that no palatable hot 
drink has been found to take the place of coffee. The rea¬ 
son is not hard to find. There can be no substitute for 
coffee. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley has ably summed up the 
matter by saying, “A substitute should be able to perform 
the functions of its principal. A substitute in a war must 
be able to fight. A bounty jumper is not a substitute.” 

A brief summarization of available information on the 
pharmacology of coffee indicates that it should be used in 
moderation, particularly by children, the permissible quantity 
for adults varying with the individual, his constitution, mode 
of living, etc., and ascertainable only through personal ob¬ 
servation. 

Recent scientific research has destroyed many bugaboos 
manufactured by the traducers of our national beverage; 
for one, the alleged harmful effects of the caffein content. 
We now know that the small amount of caffein in the coffee 
cup is distinctly beneficial to the majority and that it is a 
pure stimulant having no harmful reaction. 

Then there was the notion that cream in coffee made the 
beverage indigestible. The statement was made that milk 
or cream caused the coffee liquid to become coagulated when 
it came into contact with the acids of the stomach. This 
is true, but it does not carry with it the inference that indi¬ 
gestibility accompanies this coagulation. Milk and cream, 
upon reaching the stomach, are coagulated by the gastric 
juice, but the casein product formed is not indigestible. These 
liquids, when added to coffee, are partly acted upon by the 
small acid content of the brew, so that the gastric juice action 
is not so pronounced, for the coagulation was started before 
ingestion, and the coagulable constituent, casein, is more 
dilute in the cup as consumed than it is in milk. Accord¬ 
ingly, the particles formed by it in the stomach will be rela¬ 
tively smaller and more quickly and easily digested than 
milk per se. 


28 


CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE 


Used in moderation, coffee has invariably proved a val¬ 
uable stimulant, increasing personal efficiency in mental and 
physical labor. Its action in the alimentary regime is that 
of an adjuvant food, aiding digestion, favoring increased 
flow of the digestive juices, promoting intestinal peristalsis, 
and not tanning any part of the digestive organs. It reacts 
on the kidneys as a diuretic, and increases the excretion of 
uric acid; which, however, is not to be taken as evidence 
that it is harmful in gout. Coffee has been indicated as a 
specific for various diseases, its functions therein being the 
raising and sustaining of low vitalities. Its effect upon 
longevity is virtually nil. A small proportion of humans 
who are very nervous may find coffee undesirable, but sensi¬ 
ble consumption of coffee by the average, normal, non¬ 
neurasthenic person will not prove harmful but beneficial. 

Until the campaign of education recently conducted by 
coffee men in the United States, many neurotics received 
with gladness the tales of the harmfulness of coffee. They 
eagerly welcomed the doubtful substitutes, coffee minus the 
caffein, or some nauseating cereal preparation. They were 
convinced that by avoiding coffee they could cure their 
nervous condition. 

Commenting upon the campaign of enlightenment, the 
New York Medical Journal & Medical Record said: 

This whole question has been exaggerated. Coffee in modera¬ 
tion does not produce nervous ailments. Removal of coffee from 
the diet does not cure them. Coffee with cream and sugar is 
a source of food and energy. In many cardiac and nephritic 
conditions there is no better or simpler preparation than well pre¬ 
pared coffee. 

It is amusing to see chocolate, cocoa, and even tea substituted 
for coffee in various nervous or other conditions, when as a mat¬ 
ter of fact the amount of stimulus cup for cup is the same or even 
greater. What foundation there is for giving children and old 
persons various chocolate preparations in place of coffee is difficult 
to determine. 

It would be well to look at the coffee question squarely and not 
cover the situation by inane avoidances. Coffee is one of the main- 


29 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


stays of our rapid civilization. Those adults who wish to live 
and enjoy life, let them drink their coffee in peace. Those who 
wish to ascribe illness or nervousness to magical causes, let them 
abandon it. 

This is an able summing up of the question of the alleged 
harmfulness of coffee. Those who may wish to examine the 
evidence pro and con will find it detailed in the chapter on 
the pharmacology of coffee in All About Coffee. Opinions, 
names, and full references are given there. 

The Whole Truth about Coffee 

For more than three years the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology made an exhaustive investigation of coffee. This 
investigation was made at the invitation of the coffee 
trade of the United States to determine by scientific research 
the whole truth about coffee and coffee making. It involved 
a total cost of $40,000 and was one of the most thorough in¬ 
vestigations ever made of any food product. 

The result of this scientific research, as announced by 
Professor Samuel C. Prescott, director of the institute’s De¬ 
partment of Biology & Public Health, shows that coffee is a 
wholesome, helpful, satisfying drink for the great majority 
of people. 

The report covers many hundreds of pages, for every 
aspect of coffee and coffee making was studied, but in just 
one paragraph of 92 words Professor Prescott swept aside 
all the old prejudices and superstitions, and gave coffee the 
cleanest bill of health that could be wished. He said: 

It may be stated that, after weighing the evidence, a dis¬ 
passionate evaluation of the data so comprehensively surveyed 
has led to no alarming conclusions that coffee is an injurious 
beverage for the great mass of human beings, but on the con¬ 
trary that the history of human experience, as well as the results 
of scientific experimentation, point to the fact that coffee is a 
beverage which, properly prepared and rightly used, gives com¬ 
fort and inspiration, augments mental and physical activity, and 
may be regarded as the servant rather than the destroyer of 
civilization. 


30 




















» 








$ 

% 


«r • 




















COFFEE 


MERCHANDISING 













CHAPTER IV 


WHERE COFFEE GROWS 

Locating the principal coffee-growing districts in the 
world’s coffee belt — With a commercial coffee chart 
of the leading growths, giving market names and 
general trade characteristics. 

T HE coffee belt of the world lies between the Tropic of 
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.- The coffee tree, 
while native to Abyssinia and Ethiopia, grows well in 
Java, Sumatra, and other islands of the Dutch East Indies; 
in India, Arabia, equatorial Africa, the Pacific islands, 
Mexico, Central and South America, and the West Indies. 

The leading growths that find favor in the world's mar¬ 
kets are listed in the Commercial Coffee Chart on page 
36, reproduced from All About Coffee, where they are 
described in greater detail. Their general trade uses are, 
however, discussed farther along in this work in the chap¬ 
ter entitled, “Green and Roasted Coffee Characteristics.” 

Mexico is the principal producing country in the northern 
part of the western continent, and Brazil in the southern 
part. In Africa, the eastern coast furnishes the greater part 
of the supply; while, in Asia, the Netherlands Indies, British 
India, and Arabia lead. 

Within the last two decades there has been an expansion 
of the production areas in South America, Africa, and in 
southeastern Asia, and a contraction in British India and 
the Netherlands Indies. 

In Mexico, although coffee growing is widely distributed 
in most of the more southern states, the principal coffee ter¬ 
ritory is Vera Cruz, where lie the districts of Cordoba, Ori¬ 
zaba, Huatusco, and Coatepec. In the same region are the 
lalapa district and the mountains of Puebla, where consid¬ 
erable coffee is grown. Farther south are the Oaxaca dis- 


31 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


tricts on the mountain slopes of the Pacific Coast, and still 
farther south the districts in the state of Chiapas. The 
youngest district is Soconusco. On the Gulf slope of Oaxaca 
are many plantations; also in the western regions of the 
table lands of Colima and Michoacan. 

In Guatemala, coffee is grown on the table lands of 
three great mountain ranges. The principal districts are 
Costa Cuca, Costa Grande, Barberena, Tumbador, Coban, 
Costa de Cucho, Chicacao, Xolhuitz, Pochuta, Malacatan, 
San Marcos, Chuva, Panan, Turgo, Escuintla, San Vincente, 
Pacaya, Antigua, Moran, Amatitlan, Sumatan, Palmar, 
Zunil, and Montagua. 

In Salvador, the berry is grown in all districts that have 
altitudes of 1,500 to 4,000 feet. The most productive plan¬ 
tations are in the departments of La Paz, Santa Ana, Son- 
sonate, San Salvador, San Vincente, San Miguel, Santa 
Tecla, and Ahuachapam. 

In Costa Rica, the coffee-growing districts are principally 
on the Pacific slope and in the central plateaus of the in¬ 
terior. Plantations are in the provinces of Cartago, Trea 
Rios, San Jose, Heredia, and Alajuela. 

The principal plantations in Honduras are In the depart¬ 
ments of Santa Barbara, Copan, Cortez, La Paz, Choluteca, 
and El Paraiso. British Honduras doesn’t raise enough 
coffee for domestic consumption. In Nicaragua, the most 
extensive plantings are in the departments of Managua, 
Carazo, Matagalpa, Chontales, and Jinotega. The best dis¬ 
trict for coffee growing in Panama is Bugaba, where great 
suitable areas exist, but the Boquete district in the province 
of Chiriqui produces the bulk of Panama’s coffee. 

On the island of Haiti, coffee grows well in the republic 
of Haiti and in the Dominican Republic. The principal 
plantations are in the vicinity of the town of Moca in the 
eastern or Santo Domingo section of the island, and in the 
districts of Santiago, Bani, and Barahona. 

In Jamaica four parishes lead in coffee producing,—Man- 


32 


WHERE COFFEE GROWS 


Chester, St. Thomas, Clarendon, and St. Andrew. A few 
estates in the Blue Mountains produce the famed Blue 
Mountain variety. 

In Porto Rico, the coffee belt extends through the western 
half of the island beginning in the hills along the south 
coast around Ponce and extending north through the center 
of the island almost to Arecibo, near the western end of 
the north coast. Some coffee in grown in 64 of the 68 mu¬ 
nicipalities. The largest plantations are in Utuado, Ad- 
juntas, Lares, Las Marias, Yauco, Maricao, San Sebastian, 
Mayaguez, Ciales, and Ponce. 

Coffee can be grown in practically every island of the 
West Indies, and is grown in a small way in many of them. 
Little is produced for international trade except in the 
islands already mentioned. Cuba was formerly a heavy 
producer, but now only a small quantity is grown there, and 
she has been forced to import from Porto Rico to supply her 
own needs. Guadeloupe grows coffee, some of which is 
shipped to Martinique and exported as the product of that 
country; no longer the coffee producer it was in the 18th 
century after De Clieu introduced the plant there. Small 
amounts of coffee are grown on Trinidad and Tobago. 

Colombian coffees are grown in nearly all departments 
where the elevations range from 3,500 to 6,500 feet. Chief 
among them are Antioquia (capital, Medellin); Caldas 
(capital, Manizales); Magdalena (capital, Santa Marta); 
Santander (capital, Bucaramanga); Tolima (capital, 
Ibague); and the Federal District (capital, Bogota). The 
department of Cundinamarca produces a coffee that is counted 
one of the best of Colombian grades. The finest grades are 
grown in the foothills of the Andes, in altitudes 3,500 to 
4,500 feet above sea level. 

In Venezuela, there are no great coffee belts as in Mexico 
and Central America. Many districts are days’ rides apart. 
The chain of the Maritime Andes, reaching eastward across 
Colombia and Venezuela, approaches the Caribbean coast in 


33 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


the latter country. Along the slopes and foothills of these 
mountains are produced some of the finest grades of South 
American coffee. Here the best coffee grows in the tierra 
templada and in the lower part of the tierra fria, and is 
known as the cafe de tierra fria, or coffee of the cold, or 
high, land. In these regions the equable climate, the constant 
and adequate moisture, the rich and well-drained soil, and 
the protecting forest shade afford the conditions under which 
the plant grows and thrives best. On the fertile lowland 
valleys nearer the coast grows the cafe de tierra caliente, or 
coffee of the hot land. 

The Guianas (British, Dutch, and French) grow coffee, 
but little more than is needed for home consumption. 

Brazil’s commercial coffee-growing region has an estimated 
area of 1,158,000 square miles, and extends from the river 
Amazon to the southern border of the state of Sao Paulo, 
and from the Atlantic Coast to the western boundary of the 
state of Matto Grosso. This area is larger than that section 
of the United States lying east of the Mississippi River, with 
Texas added. In every state of the republic, from Ceara 
in the north to Santa Catharina in the south, the coffee tree 
can be cultivated profitably, and is, in fact, more or less 
grown in every state, if only for domestic use. However, 
little attention is given to coffee growing in the north, except 
in Pernambuco, which has only about 1,500,000 trees, as 
compared with the 764,000,000 trees of Sao Paulo in 1922. 

The chief coffee-growing plantations in Brazil are on 
plateaus seldom less than 1,800 feet above sea level, and 
ranging up to 4,000 feet. The principal coffee-growing dis¬ 
tricts are in the states of Sao Paulo, Rio, Minas Geraes, 
Bahia, and Espirito Santo. 

Coffee is grown in a small way in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, 
Chile, Paraguay, and Argentina. Ecuador gives the greatest 
promise. Cayo is the leading district 

In Arabia, coffee growing is confined to the mountains in 
the vilayet of Yemen, a district along the southwestern coast, 


34 


WHERE COFFEE GROWS 


back from the Red Sea. Coffee can be grown almost any¬ 
where in \ emen, but it is cultivated entirely in small gardens 
in a few scattered districts, and the total acreage is not large. 

In India, half of the coffee-producing area is in Mysore; 
other plantations are to be found in Kurg (Coorg), the 
Madras districts of Malabar, and in the Nilgiri hills. 

In the East India Islands, Java and Sumatra lead. Coffee 
is produced commercially in nearly every political district 
in Java, but the bulk of the yield is obtained from East 
Java. The names best known to the trade are those of the 
regencies of Besoeki and Pasoeroean, because their coffees 
make up 87 percent of Java’s production. Some of the better 
known districts are Preanger, Cheribon, Kadoe, Samarang, 
Soerabaya, and Tegal. Practically all the coffee districts 
in Sumatra are on the west coast, with Padang as head¬ 
quarters. The best known are Ankola, Siboga, Ayer 
Bangies, Mandheling, Palembang, Padang, and Benkoelen. 
The east coast has recently gone in for heavy plantings of 
Robusta. Coffee is also grown in several other islands of Dutch 
East Indies, chiefly Celebes, Bali, Lombok, the Moluccas, 
and Timor. In the Malay States, Liberica is mostly grown. 

In Africa, Abyssinia supplies two coffees known as Harar 
and Abyssinian. The former is grown in the province of 
Harar and mostly around the city of Harar. The latter 
is the fruit of wild Arabica trees that grow mainly in the 
provinces of Sidamo, Kaffa, and Guma. Coffee also grows 
in Angola, where there are large areas of wild trees; in 
Liberia, Uganda, Nyasaland, and Kenya Colony. 

The Kona side of the island of Hawaii produces the best 
known Hawaiian coffee. Other districts are Hamakua, Puna, 
and Olaa. 

The Philippines produce a negligible amount of coffee, 
as does also the Queensland district of Australia. The in¬ 
dustry is being developed in French Indo-China, however, 
where Robusta has been found to do very well. Some coffee 
is still grown in Ceylon, but it is commercially unimportant. 

35 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


COMMERCIAL COFFEE CHART 

World’s Leading Growths, with Market Names and General Trade 

Characteristics 


Grand 

Division 

Country 

Principal 

Shipping 

Ports 

Best Known 
Market Names 

Trade Characteristics 

North 

America 

Mexico 

Vera Cruz 

Coatepec 

Huatusco 

Orizaba 

Greenish to yellow bean; 

mild flavor. 

Central 

America 

Guatemala 

Puerto Barrios 

Coban 

Antigua 

Waxy, bluish bean; mel¬ 

low flavor. 


Salvador 

La Libertad 

Santa Ana 
Santa Tecla 

Smooth, green bean, neu¬ 
tral flavor. 


Nicaragua 

Corinto 

Matagalpa 

Large blue washed, fancy 
roast; acid cup. 


Costa Rica 

Puerto Limon 

Costa Ricas 

Blue-greenish bean; mild 
flavor. 

West 

Indies 

Haiti 

Cape Haitien 

Haiti 

Blue bean; rich, fairly 

acid; sweet flavor. 


Santo Domingo 

Santo Domingo 

Santo Domingo 

Flat, greenish-yellow 
bean; strong flavor. 


Jamaica 

Kingston 

Blue Mountain 

Bluish-green bean; rich, 
full flavor. 


Porto Rico 

Ponce 

Porto Ricans 

Gray-blue bean; strong, 
heavy flavor. 

South 

America 

Colombia 

Savanilla 

Medellin 

Manizales 

Bogota 

Bucaramanga 

Greenish-yellow bean; 
rich, mellow flavor. 


Venezuela 

Brazil 

La Guaira 
Maracaibo 

Santos 

Rio de Janeiro 

Merida 

Cucuta 

Caracas 

Santos 

Rio 

Greenish-yellow bean; 
mild, mellow flavor. 

Small bean; mild flavor 
Large bean; strong cup. 

Asia 

Arabia 

Aden 

Mocha 

Small, short, green to 
yellow bean; unique, 
mild flavor. 


India 

Madras 

Calicut 

Mysore 

Coorg (Kurg) 

Small to large, blue- 
green bean; strong flavor 

East India 
Islands 

Malay States 

Sumatra 

Java 

Penang 

(Geo’t’n) 

Singapore 

Padang 

Batavia 

Straits 

Liberian 

Robusta 

Mandeheling 

Ankola 

Ayer Bangies 

Preanger 

Cheribon, 

Kroe 

Liberian and Robusta 
growths for Malaysia. 

Large, yellow to brown 
bean; heavy body; exqui¬ 
site flavor. 

Small, blue to yellow 
bean; light in cup. 


Celebes 

Menado 

Macassar 

Minahassa 

Large, yellow bean; aro¬ 
matic cup. 

Africa 

Abyssinia 

Jibuti 

Harar 

Abyssinia 

Large, blue, to yellow 
bean; very like Mocha. 

Pacific 

Islands 

Hawaiian 

Islands 

Honolulu 

Kona 

Puna 

Large, blue, flinty bean; 
mildly acid. 


Philippines 

Manila 

Manila 

Yellow and brown large 


bean; mild cup. 


4 


36 




















































































0 












COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Coffee Nursery Under a Bamboo Roof in Colombia 






CHAPTER V 


HOW COFFEE IS GROWN 

Coffee cultivation in general — Soil, climate, rainfall, 
altitude, propagation, shade, windbreaks, diseases — 
How the plant grows in all the principal producing 
countries. 

C OFFEE grows best in rock ground that pulverizes 
easily, and, if possible, of volcanic origin. The plant 
favors a temperate climate within the Tropics. It re¬ 
quires about 70 inches of rainfall supplied evenly throughout 
the year. It will flourish from sea level up to 6,000 feet, 
but the quality improves the higher the elevation. Robusta 
and Lib erica do well in the lower levels, but Arabica thrives 
best in the hills or high table lands. 

Coffee trees are grown most generally from seeds planted 
in shaded nursery beds. Germination takes place in about 
six weeks. Usually the plantation is laid out on heavily 
wooded and sloping ground. The forest trees having been 
cleared and the ground prepared, the young plants are trans¬ 
ferred when about a year old. They are set out in shallow 
holes at regular intervals of eight to 12 or even 14 feet apart. 
In the triangle or hexagon system they are planted in the 
form of an equilateral triangle, each tree being the same 
distance (usually eight or nine feet) from its six nearest 
neighbors. 

Shade and windbreak trees are provided for Arabica in 
countries subjected to strong chilly winds and intensely hot 
sunlight. Hand plows and horse-drawn cultivators are em¬ 
ployed to cultivate the ground between the rows. 

If left to grow, the coffee tree may reach a height of 40 
feet; so the planter prunes regularly after the first crop to 
keep it from six to 12 feet. This makes for a quality 

37 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


bean and facilitates picking. The tree bears its first crop 
at three years and is in full bearing from the sixth to the 
15 th years, though some trees give paying crops for 30 
years. The production varies from half a pound to eight 
pounds annually, and 12 pounds have been gathered from 
a single tree. 

There are numerous pests and diseases that attack the 
trees, the worst known being a leaf disease (Hemileia vasta- 
trix), which destroyed the Ceylon coffee industry in 1869. 

The beauty of a coffee estate in flower is of a very fleeting 
character. One day it is a snowy expanse of fragant white 
blossoms for miles and miles, as far as the eye can. see, and 
two days later the soft, gentle winds have blown them all 
away. The flowers are beautiful, but the eye of the planter 
sees in them not alone beauty and fragrance. He looks 
beyond and in his mind’s eye sees bags and bags of green 
coffee, representing to him the goal and reward of all his toil 
and worry. 

Coffee-cultivation methods are pretty much the same in all 
coffee-producing countries, but there are always certain local 
variations. In Brazil’s coffee belt there are two seasons,— 
the wet, running from September to March, and the dry, 
running from April to August. The coffee trees are in bloom 
from September to December. Here the blossoms last about 
four days, and are easily beaten off by light winds or rains. 
If the rains or winds are violent, the green berries may be 
similarly destroyed; so that great damage may be caused 
by unseasonable rains and storms. 

The harvest usually begins in April or May, and extends 
well into the dry season. Even in the picking season, heavy 
rains and strong winds—especially the latter—may do con¬ 
siderable damage, for in Brazil shade trees and windbreaks 
are the exception. 

Approximately 25 percent of the Sao Paulo plantations are 
cultivated by machinery. A type of cultivator very common 
is similar to the small corn plow used in the United States. 


38 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Efficient Weeding and Harrowing at Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil 























HOW COFFEE IS GROWN 

Ihe Planet Junior, manufactured by a well known United 
States agricultural-machinery firm, is the most popular culti¬ 
vator. It is drawn by a small mule, with a boy to lead it, 
and a man to drive and guide the plow. 

In Colombia, the coffee tree bears its first crop when four 
or five years old. The trees are not subject to unusual 
hazards from the attacks of injurious insects or parasitic 
diseases, and on the whole their cultivation is rather easy. 

In Java, the climate and soil have long been ideal for cof¬ 
fee culture, although in recent years the soil in some districts 
has shown the need of fertilizer. Robusta grows well even at 
altitudes below 1,000 feet, but its bearing life is only 10 
years, as compared with the 30 years of Arabica at altitudes 
of 3,000 to 4,000 feet. On some of the highland plantations 
pruning is not considered necessary and the trees reach 30 
or 40 feet in height. With climate and soil similar to Java, 
the island of Sumatra has the added advantage that the land 
is not “coffee moe” or “coffee tired,” as is the case in parts 
of Java. 

In Salvador the coffee trees begin bearing when they are 
two or three years old, reaching full maturity at seven or 
eight years and lasting for 30 years. 

Coffee cultivation in Guatemala has reached a high degree 
of perfection. The most modem methods are employed. The 
trees flower in February, March, and April. 

Coffee cultivation in Mexico, more especially in Soconusco, 
near the border of Guatemala, reflects the influence of Guate¬ 
malan methods. 

The soil, climate, and temperature all favor coffee cultiva¬ 
tion in Porto Rico, where the virgin land of the interior re¬ 
quires less labor in its preparation than in other coffee-grow¬ 
ing countries. It is cleared in the usual manner, the trees 
are planted eight feet apart, and hoeing and spading take 
the place of plow cultivation because of the lay of the land. 

Costa Rica, in its San Jose and Cartago districts, has a 
rich volcanic soil especially adaptable to coffee cultivation. 


39 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


In India, much cultivating has been done under the shade 
of the original jungle trees. Arabica is favored. Robusta 
and Maragagipe have been tried, but without much success. 

Nicaragua has a soil that will grow coffee well in altitudes 
of 2,000 to 3,000 feet. Transportation is poor and costly. 

In Abyssinia, the natives plant the trees in rows about 12 
to 15 feet apart, but pay little attention to cultivation. 

In Arabia, land for the coffee gardens is selected on hill 
slopes, and is terraced with soil and small walls of stone 
until it reaches up like an amphitheater, often to a consider¬ 
able height. The soil, is well fertilized. For sowing, the 
seeds are thoroughly dried in ashes, and, after being placed 
in the ground, are carefully watched, watered, and shaded. 
In about a year, the shrub has grown to a height of 12 or 
more inches. Seedlings in that condition are set out in the 
gardens in rows, 10 to 13 feet apart. The young trees re¬ 
ceive moisture from neighboring wells or from irrigation 
ditches, and are shaded by bananas. 

At maturity the trees reach a height of 10 or 15 feet. Since 
they never lose all their leaves at one time, they appear al¬ 
ways green, and bear at the same time flowers and fruits, 
some of which are still green while others are ripe or ap¬ 
proaching maturity. Thus, in some districts, the trees 
are considered to have two or even three crops a year. All 
the trees begin to bear about the end of the third year. 

Inefficient methods of cultivation for many years retarded 
the development of coffee growing on the island of Haiti, 
but recently there has been some improvement. Most of the 
coffee is Arabica. The trees blossom twice before bearing, 
in January and April-May. 

No shade is needed for coffee growing in Panama, and the 
only cultivation consists of three or four cleanings a year to 
keep down the weeds. No plowing is required. 

Advanced methods of planting and cultivation are being 
followed in French Indo-China and British East Africa, 
fostered by the French and British governments. 


40 


HOW COFFEE IS GROWN 


In Hawaii, the volcanic soil lends itself easily to success¬ 
ful coffee cultivation. Coffee trees in Kona are planted prin¬ 
cipally in the open, though sometimes they are shaded by the 
native kukui trees. They are grown from seed in nurseries; 
and the seedlings, when one year old, are transplanted in 
regular lines nine feet apart. In two years a small crop is 
gathered, yielding five to 12 bags of cleaned coffee an acre. 
At three years, the trees produce eight to 20 bags of cleaned 
coffee an acre, and from that time they are fully matured. 
The ripening season is between September and January, and 
there are two principal pickings. Many plantations are cul¬ 
tivated by Japanese labor. 

Conditions of soil and climate are favorable to coffee cul¬ 
tivation in the Philippines, labor is cheap and abundant, 
but enterprise is lacking. 



41 


I 












* 





COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Picking Coffee on a Well-Kept Fazenda, Brazil 














CHAPTER VI 


PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET 

The marvelous coffee package, one of the most ingeni¬ 
ous in all nature — How coffee is harvested — Pick- 
ing — Dry and wet ntethods of preparation — Pulp- 
ing — Fermentation and washing — Drying — Hull¬ 
ing, or peeling and polishing — Sizing or grading — 
Preparation methods of different countries. 

I T is doubtful if in all nature there is a more cunningly 
devised food package than the fruit of the coffee tree. It 
is very like a cherry, though somewhat elongated and hav¬ 
ing in its outer end a small umbilicus. But mark with what 
ingenuity the package has been constructed! The outer 
wrapping is a thin, gossamer-like skin which incloses a soft 
pulp, sweetish to the taste, but of mucilaginous consistency. 
This pulp in turn is wrapped about the inner seal, called the 
parchment, because of its tough texture. The parchment in¬ 
closes the magic bean in its last wrapping, a delicate silver- 
colored skin, not unlike fine-spun silk or the sheerest of 
tissue papers. And this last wrapping is so tenacious, so 
true to its guardianship function, that no amount of rough 
treatment can dislodge it altogether, for parts of it remain 
clinging to the bean even into the roasting and grinding 
processes. 

Coffee is said to be “in the husk/’ or “in the parchment,” 
when the whole fruit is dried; and it is called “hulled coffee” 
when it has been deprived of its hull and peel. The matter 
forming the fruit, called the coffee berry, covers two thin, 
hard, oval seed vessels held together, one to the other, by 
their flat sides.. These seed vessels, when broken open, con¬ 
tain the raw coffee beans of commerce. They are usually of 
a roundish oval shape, convex on the outside, flat inside, 
marked longitudinally in the center of the flat side with a 


43 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


deep incision, and wrapped in the thin pellicle known as the 
silver skin. When one of the two seeds aborts, the remain¬ 
ing one acquires greater size, and fills the interior of the 
fruit, which in that case, of course, has but one cellule. This 
abortion is common in the Arabica variety, and produces a 
bean formerly called grage coffee, but now more commonly 
known as peaberry, or male berry. 

The various coverings of the coffee beans are almost al¬ 
ways removed on the plantations in the producing countries. 
Properly to prepare the raw beans, it is necessary to remove 
the four coverings,—the outer skin, the sticky pulp, the 
parchment or husk, and the closely adhering silver skin. 

There are two distinct methods of treating the coffee fruits, 
or “cherries.” One process, the one that until recent years 
was in general use throughout the world, and is still in many 
producing countries, is known as the dry method. The coffee 
prepared in this way is sometimes called “common,” 
“ordinary,” or “natural,” to distinguish it from the product 
that has been cleaned by the wet or washed method. The 
wet method, or, as it is sometimes designated, the “West 
Indian process” (W.I.P.), is practised on many of the large 
modern plantations that happen to have a sufficient supply 
of water. 

In the wet process, the first step is called pulping; the 
second is fermentation and washing; the third is drying; the 
fourth is hulling or peeling; and the last, sizing or grading. 
In the dry process, the first step is drying; the second, 
hulling; and the last, sizing or grading. 

The coffee cherry ripens six to seven months after the tree 
has flowered, or blossomed, and becomes a deep, purplish 
crimson color. It is then ready for picking. The ripening 
season varies throughout the world, according to climate and 
altitude. In the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, the harvesting 
season lasts from May to September; while in Java, where 
three crops are produced annually, harvesting is almost a 
continuous process throughout the year. In Colombia, the 


44 


PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET 


harvesting seasons are March and April, and November and 
December. In Guatemala, the crops are gathered from Octo¬ 
ber through December; in Venezuela, from November 
through March. In Mexico, the coffee is harvested from 
November to January; in Haiti, the harvest extends from 
May to December; in Arabia, from September to March; in 
Abyssinia, from September through November. In Uganda, 
Africa, there are two main crops, one ripening in March and 
the other in September, and picking is carried on during 
practically every month except December and January. In 
India, the fruit is ready for harvesting from October to 
January. 

Picking 

The general practice throughout the. world has been to 
hand pick the fruit; although in some countries the cherries 
are allowed to become fully ripe on the trees and to fall to 
the ground. The introduction of the wet method of prepara¬ 
tion, indeed, has made it largely unnecessary to hand pick 
crops, and the tendency seems to be away from this practice 
on the larger plantations. If the berries are gathered 
promptly after dropping, the beans are not injured, and the 
cost of harvesting is reduced. 

The picking season is a busy time on a large plantation. 
All hands join in the work,—men, women, and children,— 
for it must be rushed. Overripe berries shrink and dry up. 
The pickers, with baskets slung over their shoulders, walk 
between the rows, stripping the berries from the trees, using 
ladders to reach the topmost branches, and sometimes even 
taking immature fruit in their haste to expedite the work. 
About 30 pounds are considered a fair day’s work under 
good conditions. As the baskets are filled, they are emptied 
at a “station” in that particular unit of the plantation, or, 
in some cases, directly into wagons that keep pace with the 
pickers. The coffee is freed as much as possible of sticks, 
leaves, etc., and is then conveyed to the preparation grounds. 

A space of several acres is needed for the various prepara- 

45 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


tion processes on the larger plantations; the plant including 
concrete-surfaced drying grounds, large fermentation tanks, 
washing vats, mills, warehouses, stables, and even machine 
shops. In Mexico, this place is known as the beneficio; in 
Brazil, the cafezale. 

Washed and Unwashed Coffee 

Where water is plenty, the ripe coffee cherries are fed by 
a stream of water into a pulping machine, which breaks the 
outer skins, permitting the pulpy matter enveloping the beans 
to be loosened and carried away in further washings. It is 
this wet separation of the sticky puip from the beans, instead 
of allowing it to dry on them, to be removed later with the 
parchment in the hulling operation, that makes the distinc¬ 
tion between washed and unwashed coffees. Where water 
is scarce, the coffees are unwashed. 

Either method being well done, does washing improve the 
strength and flavor? Opinions differ. The soil, altitude, 
climatic influences, and cultivation methods of a country 
give its coffee certain distinctive drinking qualities. Wash¬ 
ing immensely improves the appearance of the bean; it also 
reduces curing costs. Generally speaking, washed coffees 
will always command a premium over coffees dried in the 
pulp. 

Whether coffee is washed or not, it has to be dried; and 
there is a kind of fermentation that goes on during washing 
and drying about which coffee planters have differing ideas, 
just as tea planters differ over the curing of tea leaves. Care¬ 
ful scientific study is needed to determine how much, if any, 
effect this fermentation has on the ultimate cup value. 

Preparation by the Dry Method 

The dry method of preparing the berries is not only the 
older method, but is considered by some operators as provid¬ 
ing a distinct advantage, over the wet process, since berries 
of different degrees of ripeness can be handled at the same 


46 


PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET 


time. However, the success of this method is dependent 
largely on the continuance of clear warm weather over quite 
a length of time, which cannot always be counted on. 

In this process the berries are spread in a thin layer on 
open drying grounds, or barbecues, often having cement or 
brick surfaces. The berries are turned over several times a 
day in order to permit the sun and wind thoroughly to dry 
all parts. The sun-drying process lasts about three weeks; 
and after the first three days of this period the berries must 
be protected from dews and rains by covering them with 
tarpaulins, or by raking them into heaps under cover. If 
the berries are not spread out, they heat, and the silver skin 
sticks to the coffee bean, and frequently discolors it. When 
thoroughly dry, the berries are stored, unless the husks 
(outer skin and inner parchment) are to be removed at once. 
Hot air, steam, and other artificial drying methods take the 
place of natural sun drying on some plantations. 

In the dry method, the husks are removed either by hand 
(threshing and pounding in a mortar, on the smaller plan¬ 
tations) or by specially constructed machinery, known as 
hulling machines. 

The Wet Method—Pulping 

The wet method of preparation is the more modern form, 
and is generally practised on the larger plantations which 
have a sufficient supply of water, and enough money to 
install the quite extensive amount of machinery and equip¬ 
ment required. It is generally considered that washing re¬ 
sults in a better grade of bean. 

In this method the cherries are sometimes thrown into 
tanks full of water to soak for about 24 hours, so as to 
soften the outer skins and underlying pulp to a condition 
that will make them easily removable by the pulping ma¬ 
chine; the idea being to rub away the pulp by friction with¬ 
out crushing the beans. 

On the larger plantations, however, the coffee cherries 


47 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


are dumped into large concrete receiving tanks, from which 
they are carried the same day by streams of running water 
directly into the hoppers of the pulping machines. 

At least two score of different makes of pulping machines 
are in use in the various coffee-growing countries. Pulpers 
are made in various sizes, from the small, hand-operated 
machine to the large type driven by power, and in two gen¬ 
eral styles,—cylinder and disk. 

The cylinder pulper, the latest style—suggesting a huge 
nutmeg-grater—consists of a rotary cylinder surrounded 
with a copper or brass cover punched with bulbs. These 
bulbs differ in shape according to the species, or variety of 
coffee, to be treated,— Arabica, Liberica, Robusta, Cane- 
phora, or what not. The cylinder rotates against a breast 
with pulping edges set at an angle. The pulping is effected 
by the rubbing action of the copper cover against the edges, 
or ribs, of the breast. The cherries are subjected to a rub¬ 
bing and rolling motion, in the course of which the two 
parchment-covered beans contained in the majority of the 
cherries become loosened. The pulp itself is carried by the 
cover and is discharged through a pulp shoot, while the 
pulped coffee is delivered through holes in the breast. Cyl¬ 
inder machines vary in capacity from 400 pounds (hand 
power) to 4,800 pounds (motive power) an hour. 

Some cylinder pulpers are double, being equipped with 
rotary screens or oscillating sieves, which segregate the im¬ 
perfectly pulped cherries so that they may be put through 
again. Pulpers are also equipped with attachments that 
automatically move the imperfectly pulped material over 
into a repassing machine for another rubbing. Others have 
attachments to crush the cherries partially before pulping. 

The breasts in cylinder machines are usually made with 
removable steel ribs; but in Brazil, Nicaragua, and other coun¬ 
tries, where, owing to the short season and scarcity of labor, 
the planters have to pick, simultaneously, green, ripe, and 
overripe (dry) cherries, rubber breasts a,.re used. 


48 


PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET 


The disk pulper (the earliest type, having been in use 
for more than 70 years) is the style most generally used in the 
Dutch East Indies and in some parts of Mexico. The re¬ 
sults are the same as those obtained with the cylindrical 
pulper. The disk machine is made with one, two, three, 
or four vertical iron disks, according to the capacity desired. 
The disks are covered on both sides with a copper plate of 
the same shape, and punched with blind punches. The 
pulping operation takes place between the rubbing action 
of the blind punches, or bulbs, on the copper plates and the 
lateral pulping bars fitted to the side cheeks. As in the 
cylinder pulper, the distance between the surface of the 
bulbs and the pulping bar may be adjusted to allow of any 
clearance that may be required, according to the variety of 
coffee to be treated. 

Disk pulpers vary in capacity from 1,200 pounds to 
14,000 pounds of ripe cherry coffee an hour. They, too, are 
made in combinations employing cylindrical separators, 
shaking sieves, and repassing pulpers, for completing the 
pulping of all unpulped or partially pulped cherries. 

Fermentation and Washing 

The next step in the process consists in running the pulped 
cherries into cisterns, or fermentation tanks, filled with 
water, for the purpose of removing such pulp as was not 
removed in the pulping machine. The saccharin matter is 
loosened by fermentation in 24 to 32 hours. The mass is 
kept stirred up for a short time; and, in general practice, 
the water is drawn off from above, the light pulp floating 
at the top being removed at the same time. The same tanks 
are often used for washing, but a better practice is to have 
separate tanks. 

Some planters permit the pulped coffee to ferment in 
water. This is called the wet fermentation process. Others 
drain the water from the tanks and conduct the operation in 
a semi-dry state, called the dry fermentation process. 


49 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


The coffee bean, when introduced into the fermentation 
tanks, is inclosed in a parchment shell made slimy by its 
closely adhering saccharin coat. After fermentation, which 
not only loosens the remaining pulp but also softens the 
membranous covering, the beans are given a final wash¬ 
ing, either in washing tanks or by being run through me¬ 
chanical washers. The type of washing machine generally 
used consists of a cylindrical tub having a vertical spindle 
fitted with a number of stirrers, or arms, which, in rotat¬ 
ing, stir and lift up the parchment coffee. In another type, 
the cylinder is horizontal, but the operation is similar. 

Drying 

The next step in preparation is drying. The coffee, 
which is still “in the parchment,” but is now known as 
washed coffee, is spread out thinly on a drying ground, as 
in the dry method. However, if the weather is unsuitable 
or cannot be depended upon to remain fair for the neces¬ 
sary time, there are machines which can be used to dry 
the coffee satisfactorily. On some plantations, the drying 
is started in the open and finished by machine. The ma¬ 
chines dry the coffee in 24 hours, while 10 days are required 
by the sun. 

The object of the drying machine is to dry the parchment 
of the coffee so that it may be removed as readily as the 
skin on a peanut, and this object is achieved in the most 
approved machines by keeping a hot current of air stirring 
through the beans. One of the best-liked types, the Guar- 
diola, resembles the cylinder of a coffee-roasting machine. 
It is made of perforated steel plates in cylinder form, and 
is carried on a hollow shaft through which the hot air is 
circuated by a pressure fan. The beans are rotated in the 
revolving cylinder; and as the hot air strikes the wet coffee 
it creates a steam that passes out through the perforations 
of the cylinder. Within the cylinder are compartments 
equipped with winged plates, or ribs, that keep the coffee 


50 


COFFEE 


MERCHANDISING 







































A 


• 






















. 



PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET 


constantly stirred up to facilitate the drying process. An¬ 
other favorite is the O’Krassa, It is constructed on the 
principle just described, but differs in detail of construc¬ 
tion from the Guardiola, and is able to dry its contents a 
few hours quicker. Hot air, steam, and electric heat are 
all employed in the various makes of coffee driers. A tem¬ 
perature from 65° to 85° centigrade is maintained during 
the drying process. 

When thoroughly dry, the parchment can be crumbled 
between the fingers, and the bean within is too hard to be 
dented by fingernail or teeth. 

Hulling, Peeling, and Polishing 

The last step in the preparation process is called hulling 
or peeling, both words accurately describing the purpose of 
the operation. Some husking machines for hulling or peel¬ 
ing parchment coffee are polishers as well. This work may 
be done on the plantation or at the port of shipment just 
before the coffee is shipped abroad. Sometimes the coffee 
is exported in parchment, and is cleaned in the country 
of consumption, but practically all coffee entering the United 
States arrives without its parchment. 

Peeling machines, more accurately named hullers, work 
on the principle of rubbing the beans between a revolving 
inner cylinder and an outer covering of woven wire. Ma¬ 
chines of this type vary in construction. Some have screw¬ 
like inner cylinders, or turbines, others having plain cone- 
shaped cores on which are knobs and ribs that rub the beans 
against one another and the outer shell. Practically all 
types have sieve or exhaust-fan attachments, which draw 
the loosened parchment and silver skin into one compartment, 
while the cleaned beans pass into another. 

Polishers of various makes are sometimes used just to 
remove the silver skin and to give the beans a special polish. 
Some countries demand a highly polished coffee; and, to 
supply this demand, the beans are sent through another 


51 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


huller having a phosphor-bronze cylinder and cone. Much 
Guadeloupe coffee is prepared in this way, and is known 
as cafe bonifieur from the fact that the polishing machine 
is called in Guadeloupe the bonifieur (improver). It is 
also called cafe de luxe. Coffee that has not received the 
extra polish is described as habitant; while coffee in the 
parchment is known as cafe en parche. Extra polished 
coffee is much in demand in the London, Hamburg, and 
other European markets. A favorite machine for producing 
this kind of coffee is the Smout combined peeler and pol¬ 
isher, the invention of Jules Smout, a Swiss. Don Roberto 
O’Krassa also has produced a highly satisfactory combined 
peeler and polisher. 

For hulling dry cherry coffee, there are several excellent 
makes of machines. In one style, the hulling takes place 
between a rotating disk and the casing of the machine. In 
another, it takes place between a rotary drum covered with 
a steel plate punched with vertical bulbs, and a chilled 
iron hulling plate with pyramidal teeth cast on the plate. 
Both are adjustable to different varieties of coffee. In still 
another type of machine, the hulling takes place between 
steel ribs on an internal cylinder, and an adjustable knife, 
or hulling blade, in front of the machine. 

Sizing or Grading 

The coffee bean is now clean, the processes described in 
the foregoing having removed the outer skin, the saccharin 
pulp, the parchment, and the silver skin. This is the end 
of the cleaning operations; but there are two more steps 
to be taken before the coffee is ready for the trade of the 
world,—sizing and hand sorting. These two operations are 
of great importance; since on them depends, to a large ex¬ 
tent, the price the coffee will bring in the market. 

Sizing, or grading by sizes, is done in modem commercial 
practice by machines that automatically separate and dis¬ 
tribute the different beans according to size and form. In 


52 


PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET 


principle, the beans are carried across a series of sieves, 
each with perforations varying in size from the others; the 
beans passing through the holes of corresponding sizes. 
The majority of the machines are constructed to separate 
the beans into five or more grades, the principal grades 
being triage, third flats, second flats, first flats, and first and 
second peaberries. Some are designed to handle “elephant” 
and “mother” sizes. The grades have local nomenclature 
in the various countries. 

After grading, the coffee is picked over by hand to re¬ 
move the faulty and discolored beans that it is almost im¬ 
possible to remove thoroughly by machine. The higher 
grades of coffee are often double-picked; that is, picked 
over twice. When this is done on a large scale, the beans 
are generally placed on a belt, or platform, that moves at 
a regulated speed before a line of women and children, who 
pick out the undesirable beans as they pass on the moving 
belt. There are small machines of this type built to be 
operated by one person, who moves the belt mechanism with 
a treadle. 

In Brazil, the operation of some of the large fazendas re¬ 
quires a large number and a great variety of preparation 
machines and equipment. Generally considered, the state 
of Sao Paulo is better equipped with approved machinery 
than any other commercial district in the world. 

Practically every fazenda in Brazil of any considerable 
commercial importance is equipped with the most modern 
of coffee-cleaning equipment. Some of the larger ones in 
the state of Sao Paulo, like the Dumont and the Schmidt 
estates, are provided with private railways connecting the 
fazendas with the main railroad line some miles away, and 
also have miniature railway systems running through the 
fazendas to move the coffee from one harvesting and clean¬ 
ing operation to another. The coffee is carried in small 
cars that are either pushed by a laborer or are drawn by 
horse or mule. 


53 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


Some of the larger fazendas cover thousands of acres, 
and have several millions of trees, giving the impression of 
an unending forest stretching far away into the horizon. 
Here and there are openings in which buildings appear, the 
largest group of structures usually consisting of those mak¬ 
ing up the cafezale, or cleaning plant. 

Brazilian fazendeiros follow the methods described in the 
foregoing in preparing their coffee for market, using the 
most modern of the equipment detailed under the story of 
the wet method of preparation. On most of the fazendas 
the machinery is operated by steam or electricity, the latter 
coming more and more into use each year in all parts of 
the coffee-growing region. 

The workers on some of the largest Brazilian fazendas 
would constitute the population of a small city, more than 
a thousand families often finding continuous employment 
in cultivating, harvesting, cleaning, and transporting the 
coffee to market. For the most part, the workers are of 
Italian extraction, who have almost altogether superseded 
the Indian and Negro laborers of the early days. The 
workers live on the fazendas in quarters provided by the 
fazendeiros, and are paid a weekly or monthly wage for 
their services; or they may enter upon a year’s contract to 
cultivate the trees, receiving extra pay for picking and other 
work. Brazil in the past has experimented with the slave 
system, with government colonization, with cooperative 
planting, with the harvesting system, and with the share 
system; and some features of all these plans, except slavery, 
which was abolished in 1888, are still employed in various 
parts of the country, although the wage system predomi¬ 
nates. 

Brazil has six gradings for its Sao Paulo coffees, which 
are also classified as Bourbon Santos, flat-bean Santos, and 
Mocha-seed Santos. Rio coffees are graded by the number 
of imperfections for New York, and as washed and un¬ 
washed for Havre. 


54 


PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET 


In Colombia, now (1924), next to Brazil the world’s 
largest producer, the wet method of preparing the coffee for 
market is most generally followed, the drying processes often 
being a combination of sun and drying machines. Many 
plantations have their own hulling equipment; but much of 
the crop goes in the cherry to local commercial centers, where 
there are establishments that make a specialty of cleaning 
and grading the coffee. 

The Colombia coffee crop is gathered twice a year, the 
principal one in March and April and the smaller one in 
November and December, although some picking is done 
throughout the year. For this labor native Indian and 
Negro women are preferred, as they are more rapid, skilful, 
and careful in handling the trees. Contrary to the method 
in Brazil, where the tree at one handling is stripped of its 
entire bearings, ripe and unripe fruit, here only the fully 
ripened fruit is picked. That necessitates going over the 
ground several times, as the berries progressively ripen. 
More time is consumed in this laborious operation, but it 
is believed that thereby a better crop of more uniform grade 
is obtained and in the aggregate with less waste of time 
and effort. 

Colombian planters classify their coffees as cafe trillado 
(natural or sun dried), cafe lavado (washed), cafe en per - 
gamino (washed and dried in the parchment). They grade 
them as excelso (excellent), fantasia (excelso and extra), 
extra, primer a (first), segundo (second), caracal (peaberry), 
monstruo (large and deformed), consume (defective), and 
casilla (siftings). 

Venezuela employs both the dry and the wet methods of 
preparation, producing both “washed” and “commons,” and 
also, like Colombia, has a large part of the coffee cleaned 
in the trading centers of the various coffee districts. Dry, 
or unwashed, coffees are known as trillado (milled), and 
compose the bulk of the country’s output. Venezuela’s plan¬ 
tation-working forces are largely natives of Indian descent 

55 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


and Negroes; some of them coming during harvesting season 
from adjoining Colombia and returning there after the pick¬ 
ing is done. Modem plantation machinery is very scarce; 
the ancient method of hulling coffee in a circular trough, 
where the dried berries are crushed by heavy wooden wheels 
drawn by oxen, is still a common sight in Venezuela. In 
preparing washed coffees, some planters ferment the pulped 
coffee under water (wet fermentation process), while others 
ferment without water (dry fermentation). 

The planters in Salvador favor the dry method of coffee 
preparation, and the bulk of the crop is natural, or un¬ 
washed. 

Most Guatemalas are prepared for market by the wet 
method. The gathering of the crops furnishes employment 
for half the population. German and American settlers have 
introduced the latest improvements in modern plantation 
machinery into Guatemala. 

In Mexico, coffee is harvested from November to Janu¬ 
ary, and large quantities are prepared by both the dry and 
the wet methods, the latter being practised on the larger 
estates that have the necessary water supply and can afford 
the machinery. Here, too, one will find coffee being cleaned 
by the primitive hand-mortar and wind-winnowing method. 
The laborers employed on the plantations are mostly half- 
breeds and Indians. 

In Haiti, the picking season is from November to March. 
In recent years better attention has been paid to cultural 
and preparation methods, and the product is more favorably 
regarded commercially. Both dry and wet methods are em¬ 
ployed in Haiti. 

In Porto Rico, planters favor the wet method of coffee 
preparation. The crop is gathered from August to Decem¬ 
ber. The coffees are graded as caracollilo (peaberry), pri¬ 
mer o (hand-picked), segundo (second grade), trillo (low 
grade). 

The wet method of coffee preparation is mostly favored 
56 


PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET 


in Nicaragua. Many of the large plantations are worked by 
colonies of Americans and Germans, who are competent to 
apply the abundant natural water power of the country 
to the operation of the modern coffee-cleaning machinery that 
has been introduced. 

Costa Rica was one of the first countries of the western 
world to use coffee-cleaning machinery. Marcus Mason, 
an American mechanical engineer then managing an iron 
foundry in Costa Rica, invented three machines that would 
respectively peel off the husk, remove the parchment and 
pulp, and winnow the light refuse from the beans. Mason 
brought out other machines until he had developed a com¬ 
plete line that was largely used on coffee plantations in all 
parts of the world. 

Modern cleaning machinery and methods of preparation 
are employed to some extent in the large coffee-producing 
countries of the eastern hemisphere, and do not differ ma¬ 
terially from those of the western. 

In Arabia, the fruit ripens in August or September, and 
picking continues from then until the last fruits ripen late 
in the March following. The cherries, as they are picked, 
are left to dry in the sun on the housetop terrace, or on 
a floor of beaten earth. When they have become partly 
dry, they are hulled between two small stones, one of which 
is stationary, while the other is worked by the hand power 
of two men who rotate it quickly. Further drying of the 
hulled berry follows. It is then put into bags of closely 
woven aloe fiber, lined with matting made of palm leaves. 
It is next sent to the local market at the foot of the mountain. 
There, on regular market days, the Turkish or Arabian 
merchants, or their representatives, buy and dispatch their 
purchases by camel train to Hodeida or Aden. 

In Aden and Hodeida, the bean is submitted to further 
cleaning by the principal foreign export houses to which it 
has come from the mountains in rather dirty condition. In¬ 
dian women are the sole laborers employed in these cleaning 


57 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


houses. First, the coffee beans are separated from the dry 
empty husks by tossing the whole into the air from bamboo 
trays, the workers deftly permitting the husks to fly off 
while the beans are caught again in the tray. The beans are 
then surface cleaned by passing them; gently between two 
very primitive grindstones worked by men. A third process 
is the complete clearing of the bean from the silver skin, 
and it is then ready for the final hand picking. Women 
are called into service again, and they pick out the refuse 
husks, quaker or black beans, green or immature beans, 
white beans, and broken beans, leaving the good beans to 
be weighed and packed for shipment. The cleaned beans 
are known as bun safi; the husks become kisher. Some of 
the poorer beans also are sold, principally to France and 
Egypt. Hand-power machinery is used to a slight extent, but 
mostly the old-fashioned methods hold sway. 

The Yemen, or Arabian, bale, or package, is unique. 
It is made up of two fiber wrappers, one inside the other. 
The inside one is called attal or darouf. It is made from 
cut and plaited leaves of nakhel douin or narghil, a species 
of palm. The outer covering, called garair, is a sack made 
of woven aloe fiber. The Bedouins weave these covers and 
bring them to the export merchants at Aden and Hodeida. 
A Mocha bundle contains one, two, or four fiber packages, 
or bales. When the bundle contains one bale, it is known 
as a half; when it contains two, it is known as quarters; 
and when it contains four, it is known as eighths. Arabian 
coffee for Boston used to be packed in quarters only; for 
San Francisco and New York, in quarters and eighths. 
The longberry Abyssinian coffees were formerly packed in 
quarters only. Since the World War, however, there has 
been a scarcity of packing materials, and packing in quarters 
and eighths has stopped. Now, all Mocha, as well as Harar, 
coffee comes in halfs. A half weighs 80 kilos, or 176 
pounds net, although a few exporters ship halfs of 160 
pounds. 


58 


PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET 


Little machinery is used in the preparation of coffee in 
Abyssinia; none, in preparing the coffee known as Abys¬ 
sinian, which is the product of wild trees, and, only in a 
few instances in cleaning the Harari coffee, the fruit of cul¬ 
tivated trees. Both classes are raised mostly by natives, 
who adhere to the oldtime dry method of cleaning. In 
Harar, the coffee is sometimes hulled in a wooden mortar; 
but for the most part it is sent to the brokers in parchment, 
and cleaned by primitive hand methods after its arrival in 
the trading centers. 

In Angola, the coffee harvest begins in June, and it is 
often necessary for the government to lend native soldiers 
to the planters to aid in harvesting, as the labor supply 
is insufficient. After picking, the beans are dried in the 
sun for 14 to 40 days, depending upon the weather. After 
drying, they are brought to the hulling and winnowing ma¬ 
chines. There are now about 24 of these machines in the 
Cazengo and Golungo districts, all manufactured in the 
United States and giving satisfactory results. They are 
operated by natives. 

The coffee industry in Java and Sumatra, as well as in 
the other coffee-producing regions of the Dutch East In¬ 
dies, was begun and fostered under the paternal care of the 
Dutch government, and for that reason machine cleaning 
has always been a noteworthy factor in the marketing of 
these coffees. Since the government relinquished its control 
over the so-called government estates, European operators 
have maintained the standard of preparation, and have 
adopted new equipment as it was developed. The majority 
of estates producing considerable quantities of coffee use 
the same types of machinery as their competitors in Brazil 
and other western countries. 


59 



























A- 












i 



COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Tiie Automatic Belt Pours Into the Hold a Continuous Stream of Bags of Coffee at Santos 








CHAPTER VII 


BUYING COFFEE IN THE PRODUCING 
COUNTRIES 

How green coffee is bought and sold in the countries 
of origin. 

B UYING coffee in the producing countries and shipping 
it to the consuming countries is an important branch 
of the coffee industry and one for which many years 
of constant study and application are required in order to 
achieve success. 

Consider Brazil,—here is a country where a knowledge of 
Portuguese is the first essential for a foreigner seeking to 
do business in coffee. Many English, German, French, 
and American houses have branch offices in Rio and Santos, 
with resident buyers who have had long experience in the 
coffee business, an intimate knowledge of Brazil manners 
and customs, and are, moreover, able to converse fluently 
in the native tongue. 

Buying coffee in Aden or Harar requires a knowledge of 
10 different languages or dialects. Buyers in Java and 
Sumatra must understand Dutch and be able to speak the 
Sudanese tongues. One must have a good acquaintance with 
Spanish if he is to buy coffee successfully in Mexico and 
Central America. 

The marketing begins when the dried coffee beans are 
swept up from the drying grounds or collected from the 
grading machines on the coffee estates and started on the 
way to the port of shipment. 

In Brazil 

In Brazil, the fazendeiro (grower) usually sends his crop 
to his commissario (commission merchant) at Santos, Rio, 


61 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


Victoria, Bahia, etc. Here the coffee is cleaned and stored 
in private and public warehouses. At these warehouses 
samples of each bag are taken; the tester or sampler, stand¬ 
ing at the door with a sharp tool, resembling a cheese tester, 
which he thrusts into the center of the bag as the men pass 
him with the bags of coffee on their heads, removing a double 
handful of the contents. The samples are divided into two 
parts; one for the seller, and one that the commissario re¬ 
tains until he has sold the consignment of coffee covered 
by that particular lot of samples. 

The commissario puts his samples on the Street, one 
set at a time. He names his “asking” price, known locally 
as the pedido, which is the maximum rate he expects to get, 
but seldom receives. A set of samples may be shown to 
25 or 30 exporting houses in a day, one at a time. When 
the sample is in the hands of a firm for consideration, no 
other exporter has the right to buy the lot even at the pedido 
price, and the commissario cannot accept other offers until 
he has refused the bid. On the other hand, if a house re¬ 
fuses to give up the samples, it is understood that it is willing 
to pay the pedido price. The firm first offering a price 
acceptable to the commissario’s broker gets the lot, even 
though other houses have offered the same price. 

Having bought a lot of coffee, the Brazil buyer grades 
and tests it and ships it overseas. Where the exporter is 
Brazilian, he collects his money by drawing a draft against 
his American or European customer on deposit of bill of 
lading, cashing the draft through an exchange broker. The 
exporter must obtain a consular invoice, a shipping permit 
from both federal and state authorities, and pay several 
state and export taxes before the coffee is permitted to be sent 
aboard the ship. This process is known as “dispatching,” 
while the dock company’s charges are known as 
capitazias. 

In practically all coffee-growing sections the small planter 
is helped financially by the owners of processing plants or 


62 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Weighing and Sacking Coffee in a Santos Warehouse 







































































































































* 













BUYING IN THE PRODUCING COUNTRIES 


by the exporting firms. The larger planters may even obtain 
advances on their crops from the importing houses in New 
York, Havre, Hamburg, or other foreign centers. 

In Santos, there is a coffee exchange known as the Bolsa 
de Cafe, to which coffee brokers of Brazilian citizenship 
may belong, but they must be indorsed by three reputable 
commission men or exporters, and may not themselves be 
a partner in any mercantile firm nor deal for their own 
account in spot or future coffees. Street transactions are 
permitted here, unlike the New York Exchange, and, as 
a matter of fact, the bulk of the business is done in the 
street, but the exchange must be informed of all transactions. 
Spot coffee is actual coffee in the warehouse; future coffee 
may still be on the trees. Rio also has an exchange, the 
Centro do Commercio de Cafe, which serves the Rio trade 
in similar fashion. 

Under the Brazil government’s recent plan of permanent 
valorization, the regulation of coffee shipments in the state 
of Sao Paulo includes 10 government armazems, or storage 
warehouses, at strategic points throughout the coffee-growing 
districts. There is also one in the state of Rio. All coffee 
produced in the interior must pass through these warehouses. 
In this way the government regulates the arrival of coffee 
at ports of shipment. The fazendeiros are given negotiable 
warehouse receipts. These warehouses can handle a crop 
of 11,500,000 bags a year; Santos entries are restricted 
to 35,000 bags a day; Rio, to 12,000 bags daily. 

In Arabia and Abyssinia 

In Abyssinia, coffee is grown by small farmers, who 
mostly finance themselves and sell the crop to native brokers, 
who in turn sell it to representatives of foreign houses in 
the larger trading centers. Trading methods between farmer 
and broker are not much more than the old system of barter. 
In the southwestern section, where Abyssinian coffee grows 
wild, transport to the nearest trading center is by mule 


63 




COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

train, and not infrequently by camel back. In the Harar 
district, the women of the farmers living near Harar, the 
market center, carry the coffee in long shallow baskets on 
their heads to the native brokers. In the more remote places 
the coffee farmer waits for the broker to call upon him. 
From the town of Harar the coffee is transported by mule 
or camel train to Dire-Daoua, whence it is shipped by rail 
to Jibuti, to be sent by direct steamers to Europe, or across 
the Gulf of Aden to Aden in Arabia. 

In Harar, the native dealer takes the coffee to the custom 
house; whence, after the government has been paid its tax, 
he sells it through brokers to European merchants. It may 
be cleaned at Harar or at Aden. 

Most of the coffee in Arabia is grown in almost inaccessible 
mountain valleys by native Arabs, and is transported by 
camel caravan to Aden or Hodeida, where it is sold to agents 
of foreign importing houses. Mocha, once the principal 
exporting city for coffee, was abandoned as a coffee port 
early in the 19th century, chiefly because of the difficulty 
of keeping the roadstead of the harbor free from sand bars. 

Mocha coffee, grown in the Yemen district of Arabia, 
comes from there to Aden by either sea or overland. Fully 
60 percent comes by boat from Hodeida, 10 percent from 
other Red Sea ports, and 30 percent by camel caravan. Be¬ 
fore the World War, many of the importing and exporting 
houses had agencies in Hodeida, where the finest qualities 
were bought on the spot; but since the war few of these agen¬ 
cies have again been opened, although the installations are 
in many cases there awaiting the developments of the market. 

At present most of the coffee is bought in Aden from 
native merchants or brokers. These send around samples 
to exporting houses, which set the price they are willing to 
give, depending upon the amount of probable loss from im¬ 
purities. 

The coffee is generally packed 10 maunds. The maund 
is 28 pounds, and there are four to the cwt. The coffee is 


64 


BUYING IN THE PRODUCING COUNTRIES 

usually repacked for export into bags of six to 6.4 maunds. 

The methods of cleaning in Arabia are primitive. The 
principal work is done by Indian women and children, who 
sift and sort out the dirt, stones, and dead beans, leaving 
only beans of best quality. These are paid about one rupee 
for 10 maunds, and each can clean about a bag a day. In 
some houses the coffee is then put through a cleaning ma¬ 
chine, which adds a finish to the process. 

It costs about 25 cents a pound to buy coffee in 100-bag 
lots in Aden from a native broker. Harar coffee bought 
in Jubuti costs about 18 cents a pound in 300-bag lots. 

Java and Sumatra 

In Java and Sumatra, coffee from private estates, not 
under government control and operated by European cor¬ 
porations or individuals, has now succeeded the government- 
monopoly coffee. Private-estate crops are sold by public 
tender, usually on or about January 28 of each year. If 
the owners do not get the price they desire in Batavia or 
Padang, the coffee is sent to Amsterdam for disposal. 

In Colombia 

In Colombia before the World War, the coffee trade was 
in the hands of the larger exporters of the country, who 
were also the larger importing merchants. They made loans 
to their clients on the security of future crops. Such loans 
were usually represented by small stocks of merchandise 
and supplies, together with some cash. These accounts were 
taken up at the end of the picking season with coffee de¬ 
livered to the merchant, who had the beans cleaned in the 
local coffee-cleaning plants, sacked, and shipped for ex¬ 
port for his own account, the small planter really receiving 
a small part of the profit. 

During the speculative period in 1919, which was induced 
by the high prices in New York for Colombian coffee, there 
was active competition in coffee buying, intensified by the 


65 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


activity of a large American export and import concern, with 
the result that the producer received a much larger margin 
of profit for his coffee and more actual cash than ever 
before. 

This situation has meant a revolution in the coffee trade 
and industry of Colombia. Instead of coming into town 
(the nearest large commercial center) about twice a year, at 
the end of the November-December and April-May-June 
picking seasons, to solicit goods and a small loan from his 
dealer, the small producer has been sought out for his prod¬ 
uct with cash offers. He has escaped from the prevailing 
high interest rates charged him, and has been able to buy 
where and how it has best suited his interests. He is no 
longer controlled by the local merchants, and has money in 
hand with which to enlarge his plantations, purchase better 
equipment, and improve his living conditions. 

To understand fully the far-reaching effect of this situ¬ 
ation, it should be borne in mind that, with the exception of 
the plantations of Cundinamarca, nearly all the coffee in 
the country is produced on small plantations owned and 
worked by individual planters of the poorer class. 

Importing merchants of the coast cities of Barranquilla 
and Cartagena are large buyers of coffee in the interior, 
which they export for their own account, investing their sur¬ 
plus every year in coffee and hides for export. 

Formerly most exports from Colombia to the United States 
were financed by 30-, 60-, and 90-day drafts drawn by 
the exporter (by arrangement with the American consignee), 
generally for two-thirds the market value of the merchandise 
at time of shipment, but during recent years American 
banks established in Colombia have handled a growing pro¬ 
portion of the export business to the United States. The 
producer turns over his coffee or hides to the bank for ex¬ 
port, the bank recognizes a credit in his favor for two- 
thirds the market value, and when the goods are sold credits 
him with the balance, less expenses, interest, commission, 


66 


BUYING IN THE PRODUCING COUNTRIES 


and exchange. The terms on which these credits are gen¬ 
erally arranged, both locally and in New York, are 2*4 per¬ 
cent commission plus interest, the latter item 12 percent 
for local transactions. 

After the coffee is purchased in the producing countries, 
there are still to be reckoned the factors of additional ex¬ 
penses and time in shipment overseas before the consuming 
markets are reached. The freight rates are not constant, 
and the time required varies from four days for Mexicans 
to New Orleans, 11 to 18 days for Brazils to New York, 
30 days for Javas to New York, and 20 to 40 days for 
Mochas from Aden to New York, depending on whether 
the ship comes direct or not. 



67 


























r 






COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



I 


The Coffee Pit in the New York Coffee & Sugar/ Exchange 
























































































CHAPTER VIII 


BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE 
AT WHOLESALE 

The seven stages of transportation — Handling coffee 
at New York — How green coffee is graded — Spot- 
market trading — Buying coffee C. & F. — Futures 
and hedging — Buying and selling commissions — 
Brokers—The Exchange Clearing House — Brazil 
quotations — London , Havre , and Hamburg markets 
— Rulings. 

G REEN coffee passes through seven stages of transporta¬ 
tion in its route from plantation to roaster. These are: 
First, from the drying grounds or cleaning plant to the 
railroad, river, mule, or camel, that, secondly, carries it 
to the city of export; thirdly, into the warehouse at point 
of shipment; fourthly, into the steamer for movement over¬ 
seas; fifthly, out of the steamer and on to the wharf at 
port of destination; sixthly, from the wharf into the receiv¬ 
ing warehouses; seventhly, from the warehouse to the roast¬ 
ing room. 

Green-coffee buyers in the large importing centers of the 
United States and Europe recognize two distinct markets in 
their operations. One of these is called the “spot” market, 
because the importers, brokers, jobbers, and roasters trading 
there deal in actual coffee in warehouses in the consuming 
country. In New York the spot market is in the district 
of lower Wall Street, which includes a block or two each 
side on Front and Water Streets. Importers, roasters, 
dealers, and brokers here conduct their “street” sales. 

The other market is designated as the “futures” market, 
in which the trading is not concerned with actual coffee, but 
with the purchase or sale of contracts for future delivery 


69 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


of coffee that may still be on the trees in the producing 
country. Futures, or “options/’ as they are frequently called, 
are dealt in only on a coffee exchange. The principal ex¬ 
changes are in New York, Havre, and Hamburg. New Or¬ 
leans and San Francisco exchange dealers trade on their local 
Boards of Trade. 

Coffee-exchange contracts are dealt in just like stocks and 
bonds. They are settled by the payment of the difference, 
or “margin,” and it is seldom that the option of delivering 
actual coffee is executed. The operations generally are either 
in the nature of ordinary speculation on margin or for the 
legitimate purpose of effecting “hedges” against holdings or 
short sales of actual coffees. 


How Coffee Is Graded 

The New York Coffee & Sugar Exchange, the most im¬ 
portant in the world, because of the volume of its business, 
deals in all coffees from North, South, and Central Amer¬ 
ica, the West Indies, and the East Indies, except the Ro- 
busta variety, and uses type No. 7 as the basis for all ex¬ 
change quotations; all other types are judged in relation 
to it. 

In determining the type, the coffee is graded by the num¬ 
ber of imperfections in it. These are black beans, broken 
beans, shells, immature beans (“quakers”), stones, and 
pods. For counting the imperfections, the black bean has 
been taken as the basis, and all imperfections, no matter 
what they may be, are calculated in terms of black beans, 
acording to a scale, which is practically as follows: 

3 shells equal. 1 black bean 

5 quakers equal . 1 

5 broken beans equal . 1 

1 pod equals . 1 

1 medium-size stone equals. 1 

2 small stones equal . 1 

1 large stone equals.2 to 3 

By this scale, a coffee containing no imperfections would 


70 













BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE 


be classified as type No. 1. The test is made on one-pound 
samples. If a sample shows six black beans, or equivalent 
imperfections, it is graded as No. 2; if 13 black beans, as 
No. 3; if 29, as No. 4; if 60, as No. 5; if 110, as No. 6; 
if more than 110, as No. 7 or No. 8, which are graded by 
comparison with recognized exchange types. Coffees graded 
lower than No. 8 are not admissible to this country. 

In the spot market, a trader may also buy or sell coffee 
“to arrive’ , ; i. e., a consignment that is aboard ship on 
the way to market. Coffee is shipped to New York either 
on a consignment basis and sold for a commission, or it 
may have been bought in the shipping port and already be 
the property of an importer. When shipped on consign¬ 
ment, a wholesaler usually buys on the in-store contract, 
which provides that the purchaser must take delivery at 
the warehouse, though he is generally given a month’s 
storage privilege before removal of the coffee. 

The practice among New York importers now is to buy 
coffee on either the basis of f. o. b. delivery steamer at 
loading port, or delivery c. & f. (cost and freight) or c. i. f. 
(cost, insurance, and freight), port of destination. Pay¬ 
ment is made by letter of credit on a New York or London 
bank, entitling the exporter to draw at 90 days’ sight against 
the shipping documents, so that the shipment will be in 
the hands of the purchaser long before the draft is made. 

Frequently, a jobber acts as his own importer of Brazil 
coffee, buying direct from the exporter without using the 
agency of a broker or a regular importing firm. 

Buying Coffee C. & F. 

The following analysis shows the method of buying Brazil 
coffee “cost and freight”: 

Minimum lots sold by reputable firms are 250 bags of a grade. 
Coffee from Brazil is shipped and billed on a uniform weight of 60 
kilos, equal to 132 pounds a bag American. 

The quotation for shipments from Brazil is “cost and freight,” 
Which means that the price covers the cost of the coffee and the 


71 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


freight to the seaport at which delivery is made. The freight is 
not prepaid by the shipper, but is deducted from the invoice, and 
only the net amount of the invoice is drawn for. 

The buyer may elect to buy the coffee to be graded, on the types 
of the New York Coffee & Sugar Exchange, or he may take it on 
what is known as “Brazil grading.” If he elects to take it to be 
graded, the coffee on arrival is graded on the types, and if superior 
to the grade he must pay the excess; if it is below, the shipper 
pays for the deficiency. If bought on Brazil grading, the grade 
as shipped is final and must be accepted by the buyer. Probably 
90 percent of the coffee sold to America is taken on Brazil grad¬ 
ing, and it is really the most satisfactory way for the buyer to 
operate, assuming that he places his orders with thoroughly rep' 
utable shippers. 

Marine insurance must be covered by the buyer, and it is cus¬ 
tomary for this insurance to cover the coffee up to time of arrival 
at buyer’s warehouse, without extra charge. Premiums on marine 
insurance for first-class vessels are about 30 cents per $100. It is 
customary for the trade to insure say 10 percent over the cost. 

Shippers require that the buyer shall have issued in their favor 
a satisfactory and first-class letter of credit. Against such credits 
drafts are drawn at 90 days’ sight and invariably must be payable 
in New York. Bankers issuing credits demand that a set of docu¬ 
ments—‘bill of lading, copy of the invoice, and consular certificate 
—accompany the draft. The draft is then sent from the shipping 
port for acceptance, and, if the documents are in order and as re¬ 
quired by the terms of the letter of credit, drafts are accepted by 
the issuing banker and payable 90 days after it has been accepted. 
This practically means that the buyer usually has 75 to 85 days 
after the coffee arrives in America to pay for it. 

Buyers should use fully as much care in buying for import as 
they do when selling their own merchandise, if not more, for a 
letter of credit is irrevocable and once issued cannot be canceled 
except by agreement of both parties to the document, the issuer 
and the receiver. 

For a buyer of moderate-size lots, especially of described coffees, 
it is very important that his order be placed only with a house of 
established reputation and standing. 

While coffee is shipped from Brazil at 132 pounds net weight, 
there is a loss in weight on the voyage up, generally due to climatic 
conditions, leakage in the bags, etc., and certainly not less than 
three-quarters of one percent must be added to the cost for this de- 


72 


BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE 


ficiency. The loss by leakage in the bags is made up by what is 
known as “ship ifills.” All of the coffee that leaks out of the bags 
in a cargo is collected at the seaports by the agents of the lines 
and apportioned equally among those having shipments on the 
steamer. These ship fills, of course, are a conglomeration of every¬ 
thing on the boat, and as a rule the loss from this feature is not at 
all excessive and frequently nothing at all. 

The New York Coffee & Sugar Exchange was designed 
to be a market place for trading in coffee futures. As such 
it offers the protection of hedges to bankers and merchants. 
It operates after this fashion: 

An American coffee importer buys a lot of coffee in 
Brazil. The coffee is likely to be on the way for 30 to 60 
days, perhaps a longer or a shorter time. During all that 
time the merchant would be in a precarious position, hav¬ 
ing paid for the coffee in Brazil, probably partly on bor¬ 
rowed money or through banker’s credits, if he hadn’t im¬ 
mediately hedged that coffee in this market. 

Hedging means selling “futures” in a quantity approxi¬ 
mately equal to the shipment he is going to receive. When 
the coffee reaches New York, the merchant has it sampled, 
stored, etc., under the regulations of the exchange. He may 
sell a portion of it to a coffee roaster. Then he takes 
in his “hedges.” If a roaster buys more than he has im¬ 
mediate needs for, he too may put out hedges against it. 
Any grocer 'dealer may, in this way, buy more than he 
needs and protect himself by using futures. 

Buying and Selling Commissions 

The minimum rates of commission on coffee “per con¬ 
tract of 250 bags, for members of the exchange residing 
in the United States, are based upon a price” as seen on the 
next page, quoting from the exchange bylaws adopted 
June 8, 1920: 


73 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


Coffee Exchange Commission Rates 
(Per contract of 250 bags) 

Commission 
for laying 
or selling 


Below 10 cents. $6.25 

10 cents up to 19.99 cents. 7.50 

20 cents and above. 10.00 


Floor 
brokerage 
for laying 
or selling 
$1.50 
1.75 
2.00 


For non-members residing within the United States, double the 
above rates of commission shall be charged. 

For members and non-members residing outside of the United 
States, a commission of $2.50 shall be charged in addition to the 
above rates. 

Whenever before 30 minutes after the close of the exchange a 
member gives to another member for clearance purchases and sales 
of contracts corresponding in all respects except as to price, made 
during the day by himself or for his account when present on the 
floor of the exchange, a charge for each contract shall be made 
equal to the corresponding floor brokerage rate for buying and 
selling, in addition to any floor brokerage incurred. 

Members procuring business for other members may, by agree¬ 
ment, be entitled to one-half the commission rates for non-members 
prescribed in this section, less the corresponding brokerage charge, 
whether paid or not. 

When a transferable notice is given or received by a customer 
in fulfilment of a contract, the brokerage in that case shall be not 
less than one-half of the corresponding buying or selling commis¬ 
sion prescribed in Section 103. 

In the coffee trade there are three kinds of brokers,— 
floor, spot, and cost and freight. Floor brokers are those 
who buy and sell options on the Coffee Exchange for a 
fixed consideration per lot of 250 bags. 

Spot brokers are those who deal in actual coffee, selling 
from jobber to jobber, or representing out-of-town houses; 
the seller paying a commission of about 15 cents a bag 
in small lots, and half of one percent in large lots. 

Cost-and-freight brokers represent Brazilian accounts, and 
generally receive a brokerage of one and one-quarter per¬ 
cent. On out-of-town business, they usually split the com- 


74 





BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE 


mission with the out-of-town or “local” brokers. The out- 
of-town brokers sometimes, however, deal direct with the 
importer. All brokers except floor brokers are sometimes 
called “street brokers.” Most of the large New York, New 
Orleans, and San Francisco brokerage houses also do a 
commission business, handling one or more Brazilian or 
other coffee-producing country accounts. 

There is considerable trading in future contracts; and 
a standard form has been adopted by the exchange. No 
future contracts are valid unless they are made in the fol¬ 
lowing form: 

Brazilian Coffee—Not Santos 

Office of. 

New York.19.... 

Sold for M. 

To M. 

Thirty-two thousand five hundred pounds in about 250 hags 
coffee, growth of North, iSouth, or Central America, West Indies, 
or East Indies, excepting coffee known as Robusta, and also any 
coffee of new or unknown growth, deliverable from licensed ware¬ 
house in the port of New York, between the first and last days of 

.next, inclusive. The delivery within such time to be at 

seller’s option, upon a notice to buyer of either five, six, or seven 
days, as may be prescribed by the trade rules. The coffee to be 
of any grade, from No. 8 to No. 1 inclusive (no coffee to grade 
below No. 8), provided the average grade of Brazilian coffees shall 
not be above No. 3. Nothing in this contract, however, shall be 
construed as prohibiting a delivery averaging above No. 3 at the 

No. 3 grade. At the rate of.cents per pound for 

No. 7, with additions or deductions for other grades according to 
the rates of the New York Coffee & Sugar Exchange, existing on 
the afternoon of the day previous to the date of the notice of de¬ 
livery. Either party to have the right to call for margins as the 
variations of the market for like deliveries may warrant, which 
margins shall be kept good. 

This contract is made in view of and in all respect subject to 
the rules and conditions established by the New York Coffee & 
Sugar Exchange, and in full accordance with section 102 of the 
bylaws, 

.Brokers 


75 









COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


Across the face is the following: 

For and in consideration of one dollar to. 

in hand paid, receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged,. 

accept this contract with all its obligations and conditions. 

All deliveries on such future contracts must be made 
from licensed warehouses. There is a separate “to arrive 
contract”; but this likewise requires delivery at a licensed 
warehouse, unless the buyer and the seller have a mutual 
understanding to deliver the coffee from dock or ex ship. 
Margins to protect the contract may be called for by either 
party. The largest deposit for margins was made in 1904, 
when $22,661,710 was deposited with the superintendent as 
required by the exchange rules. 

The basic grade in a future sale is No. 7, but variations 
are provided as follows: 30 points for Rio, Victoria, and 
Bahia of all grades between 7 and 1, and of 50 points 
between 7 and 8; 50 points are allowed on Santos and 
all other coffees except between grades 1 and 2 and 2 and 
3 Santos, which are allowed 30 points. Thus, the buyer 
and the seller when entering upon a transaction know ex¬ 
actly what the difference will be between the standard 
No. 7 and the coffee that can be delivered. The right to 
deliver any grade in a future transaction has done much to 
lessen the probability of comers in coffee; but this pro¬ 
tection is further given by the stringent rule that the maxi¬ 
mum fluctuations on the exchange can be only two cents 
a pound on coffee in one day and one cent on sugar. If 
greater changes should threaten, the exchange operations 
would automatically cease. 

False or fictitious sales are prohibited, and all contracts 
must be reported to the superintendent. All contracts are 
binding and call for actual delivery. 

The exchange, after careful investigation, issues licenses 
to certain specified warehouses, graders, and weighers, so 
that parties trading under its rules and regulations are 
well and fully protected. 


76 




BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE 


The board of managers has power to close the exchange 
or to suspend trading on such days or parts of days as 
would in their judgment be for the exchange’s best interest. 

The Exchange Clearing House 

The Clearing Association is a recent outgrowth of the 
exchange, and is composed exclusively of exchange mem¬ 
bers. Every member has to bring his contracts up to market 
closing every night, either by making a deposit with the 
association to cover his balances, or by withdrawing in case 
he should be over. Members deposit $15,000 at the time of 
joining as a guaranty fund; and, if the surplus is not suf¬ 
ficient to take care of balances, the bylaws provide for the 
levying of assessments. 

The daily quotations on the Coffee Exchanges of New 
York, Havre, and (before the war) of Hamburg deter¬ 
mine to a large extent the price of green coffee the world 
over. The prices prevailing on the New York Coffee & Sugar 
Exchange are studied by coffee traders in all countries, 
the fluctuations being reflected in foreign markets as the 
reports come from the United States. Quotations are cabled 
from one great market to another; and, as each must heed 
those of the others to some extent, the coffee trade thus ob¬ 
tains a world price, and the effect on supply and demand is 
universal rather than local, as would be the case if quota¬ 
tions were not exchanged. In 1921, the exchange adopted 
an amendment to the trade rules which abolished the one- 
day transferable notice for both coffee and sugar. 

Brazil Coffee Quotations 

Brazil coffee cable quotations are the market prices in 
Rio or Santos of 10 kilograms of coffee; the price stated in 
milreis, the monetary unit of Brazil money. The basic 
grade of coffee at Rio is the No. 7 of the New York Coffee 
Exchange, and at Santos the international standard of good 
average (“g. a.”) Santos. One kilogram (often written 
“kilo” or abbreviated to K.) is equal to 2-1/5 pounds, and 


77 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


the 10-kilogram standard of quantity is therefore equivalent 
to 22 pounds, just one-sixth of a standard Brazil bag. 

The money value is not so simple, since Brazilian 
paper currency is unstable; and the milreis quotation means 
nothing unless it is considered in connection with the rate 
of exchange for the same day; i. e., the current gold value 
of the milreis. This gold value is always given with th£ 
daily quotations from Brazil, and is expressed in British 
pence. The par value of the paper milreis (1,000 reis) is 
32.45 cents of United States money, but its present actual 
value is only about 11/4. Our dollar sign is used to 
denote milreis, placing it after the whole number, and be¬ 
fore the fractional part expressed in one-thousandths. 
Thus, 8)4 milreis would be writen 8$250 Rs. 

Suppose, for example, a Rio quotation is given at 8$400, 
with exchange at 7)4d. (15 cents.) This means that 22 
pounds of coffee have a gold value of 63 British pence 
(8.4X7)4=63.0), or 5/3, as the Englishman would write 
it, which is equal to $1.27)4, or 5.8 cents a pound. 

Of course, the person familiar with Brazil quotations will 
not need to make this reduction to the pound-cent term 
in order to understand the figures. They will have a proper 
relative meaning to him in their original form; and it must 
not be overlooked that it is in this form only that they 
express correctly the value of the coffee in Brazil. It may 
make a great difference to the Brazil planter or exporter 
whether an increased gold value of his coffee arises through 
a higher milreis bid or an appreciated exchange, simply 
on account of local currency considerations. That is to say, 
the purchasing power of a milreis in Brazil will not nec¬ 
essarily vary exactly in proportion to the rate of exchange 
on London. 


London, Havre, and Hamburg 

London quotations are made in shillings and pende, 
on one hundredweight (cwt.) of coffee. This cwt. is no{ 


78 


BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE 


100 pounds, but 112 pounds, one-twentieth of the English 
ton (our long ton) of 2,240 pounds, and in all English 
coffee statistics the coffee quantities are expressed in this 
ton. A London quotation of 30/9 (30 shillings and 9 
pence), for example, is equivalent to $7.44 for 112 pounds 
of coffee, or 6.64 cents a pound at the normal rate of ex¬ 
change (which is figured as being $4.80 to $4.86 the pound 
sterling). 

At Havre, the coffee price is given in francs, on a 
quantity of 50 kilograms. This is 110 pounds, almost as 
much as the British cwt. In normal times the franc is 
equal to 19.3 cents. A French quotation of 37J4, for in¬ 
stance, means, therefore, $7.19 for 110 pounds of coffee, 
or 6.54 cents a pound. 

The Hamburg quotation (formerly from Brazil per 50 
kilos) is made on one pound German, equal to half-kilo¬ 
gram, and is expressed in pfennigs. One pfennig is 
one-hundredth of a mark, and the mark was once equal to 
23.8 cents. A German quotation of, say, 31 means, there¬ 
fore, 7.38 cents (31X-238—7.378) for 1.1 pounds, or 6.71 
cents a pound. 

Rulings Affecting Coffee Trading 

Under the government rulings no coffee grading below 
exchange type No. 8 may be imported to this country. 
Coffees below No. 8 generally contain a large proportion 
of sour or damaged beans, known in the trade as “black 
jack,” or damaged coffee, as found in “skimmings.” 
“Black jack” is a term applied to coffee that has turned 
black during the process of curing, or in the hold of a 
ship during transportation, or it may be due to a blighting 
disease. 

Another ruling is intended to prevent the sale of ar¬ 
tificially “sweated” coffee, which has been submitted to a 
steaming process to give the beans the extra-brown ap¬ 
pearance of high-grade East India and Mocha coffees 


79 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


which have been naturally “sweated” in the holds of vessels 
during the long journey to American ports. 

Other rulings are to the effect that only coffees grown 
on the island of Java may be called Java; only Yemen 
coffee from Arabia may be labeled Mocha; painted, coated, 
or polished coffees are prohibited; Minas coffee may not be 
called Santos; also Coffea rubusta may not be sold as 
Java, even though it may have been grown on the island 
of Java. 



80 






COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



hi 












CHAPTER IX 


GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE 
CHARACTERISTICS 

The trade values, bean characteristics, and cup merits 
of the leading coffees of commerce — Appearance, 
aroma, and flavor in cup testing — How experts test 
coffees — Typical sample-roasting and cup-testing 
outfit. 

M ORE than a hundred different kinds of coffee are 
bought and sold in the United States. All of them 
belong to the same botanical genus, and practically 
all to the same species, the Coffea arabica; but each has 
distinguishing characteristics which determine its commer¬ 
cial value in the eyes of importers, roasters, and distribu¬ 
ters. 

The American trade deals almost exclusively in Coffea 
arabica, although in the latter years of the World War in¬ 
creasing quantities of Robust a and Lib erica growths were 
imported, largely because of the scarcity of Brazilian stocks 
and the improvement in the preparation methods, especially 
in the case of Robustas. Considerable quantities of Ro- 
busta grades were sold in the United States before 1912, 
but trading in them fell off when the New York Coffee 
& Sugar Exchange prohibited their delivery on exchange 
contracts after March 1, 1912. 

All coffees used in the United States are divided into 
two general groups, Brazils and Milds. This is an arbi¬ 
trary geographic, not a cup quality, designation. Brazils 
comprise those coffees grown in Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, 
Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Victoria, and other Brazilian states. 
The Milds include all coffees grown elsewhere. In 1921, 
Brazils made up about three-fourths of the world’s total 


81 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


consumption. They are regarded by American traders as 
the “price” coffees, while Milds are considered as the “qual¬ 
ity” grades. 

Brazil coffees are classified into four great groups, which 
bear the names of the ports through which they are ex¬ 
ported,—Santos, Rio, Victoria, and Bahia. Santos coffee 
is grown principally in the state of Sao Paulo; Rio, in the 
state of Rio de Janeiro and the state of Minas Geraes; 
Victoria, in the state of Espirito Santo; and Bahia in the 
state of Bahia. All of these groups are further subdivided 
according to their bean characteristics and the districts in 
which they are produced. 

Under Mild coffees, the trade groups principally the 
coffees grown in Colombia, the four Central American re¬ 
publics, and Mexico. These supply the growths required 
for high-grade roasted-coffee blends. The terms “mild” 
and “soft” should not be misunderstood as meaning de¬ 
ficient in body. As a matter of fact, these coffees are among 
the world’s fanciest, possessed of the finest flavor and fullest 
body. 

Among the Mild coffees there is a much greater variation 
in characteristics than is found among the Brazilian 
growths. This is due to the differences in climate, altitude, 
and soil, as well as in the cultural, processing, storage, and 
transportation methods that are employed in the widely sep¬ 
arated countries in which the coffees known as Milds are 
produced. 

Mild coffees generally have more body, more acidity, and 
a much finer aroma than Brazils; and from the standpoint 
of quality they are far more desirable in the cup. As a 
rule, they have also better appearance, or “style,” both in 
the green and in the roast, due to the fact that greater 
care is exercised in picking and preparing the higher grades. 
Milds are important for blending purposes, most of them 
possessing distinctive individual characteristics, which in¬ 
crease their value as blending coffees. 

82 


COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 


Not All Coffees Improve with Age 
Although it has long been held that green coffee im¬ 
proves with age, and there is little doubt that this is true 
in so far as roasting merits are concerned, the question has 
been raised among coffee experts as to whether age improves 
the drinking qualities of all coffees alike. 

Rio coffees should improve with age, as they are naturally 
strong and earthy. Age might be expected to soften and 
to mellow them and others having like characteristics. If, 
however, the coffee is mild in cup quality in the first in¬ 
stance, then it may be asked if age does not weaken it so 
that in time it must become quite insipid. Several years 
ago, a New York coffee expert pointed out that this was 
what happened to Santos coffees. The new crop, he said, 
was always a more pleasant and enjoyable drink than the 
old crop, because it was a more pronounced mild coffee 
in the cup. 

Brazil Coffee Characteristics 
Santos. Of the Santos growths, the best is that known in 
the trade as Bourbon, produced by trees grown from Mocha 
seed (Coffea arabica) brought originally from the French 
island colony of Bourbon (now Reunion) in the Indian 
Ocean. The true Bourbon is obtained from the first few 
crops of Mocha seed. After the third or fourth year of 
bearing, the fruit gradually changes in form, yielding in 
the sixth year the flat-shaped beans which are sold under 
the trade name of Flat Bean Santos. By that time, the 
coffee has lost most of its Bourbon characteristics. The 
true Bourbon of the first and second crops is a small bean, 
and resembles the Mocha, but makes a much handsomer 
roast with fewer “quakers.” The Bourbons grown in the 
Campinas district often have a red center. 

As regards flavor, a good Bourbon Santos is considered 
the best coffee for its price, and is the most satisfactory 
low-cost blending coffee to be obtained. It is used with 


83 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


practically any of the high-priced coffees to reduce the cost 
of the blend. When properly made, this coffee produces 
a drink that is smooth and palatable, without tang or special 
character, and is suitable to the average taste. When aged, 
Bourbon Santos decreases in acidity, and increases some¬ 
what in size of bean. 

The Santos coffee described as Flat Bean usually has 
a smooth surface, varying in size from small to large bean, 
and in color from a pale yellow to a pale green. The 
cup has a good and smooth body of neutral character, and 
the bean may be used straight or in a blend with practically 
any Mild coffee. 

Another Santos growth, known in the trade as Harsh 
Santos, grows near the boundary between Sao Paulo and 
Minas Geraes. It often has some of the Rio characteristics, 
and commands a lower price than other Santos coffees. 

Some trade authorities are of opinion that Santos coffees 
are an exception to the rule that most green coffees im¬ 
prove with age. They argue that careful cup testing will 
reveal that a new-crop Santos is to be preferred to an old 
crop. 

All Santos coffees, washed or natural, are graded as, 1 Fine, 
2 Superior, 3 Good, 4 Regular, 5 Ordinary, 6 Escolha. 

Rios. Rio coffee is not generally liked in the United 
States, though in former years it had some following even 
in the better trade. The demand for all grades of Rios 
has been decreasing, Santos taking their place in the United 
States. Rio coffee has a peculiar, rank flavor. It has a" 
heavy, pungent, and harsh taste which traders do not con¬ 
sider of value either in straight coffee or in blends. How¬ 
ever, its low price recommends it to some packers, and 
it is often found in the cheapest brands of package coffees 
and also in many compounds. In color, the bean runs 
from light green to dark green; but when it is stored foi 
any length of time—a common practice in the past—the 


84 


COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 


color changes to a golden yellow and the coffee is then 
known as Golden Rio. The bean also expands with age. 

All Rio coffee is described by the name Rio; but the 
American trade recognizes eight different grades, designated 
by numerals from one to eight. These grades are deter¬ 
mined by standards adopted by the New York Coffee & 
Sugar Exchange, and are classified by the number of im¬ 
perfections found in the chops exported. No. 1 Rio con¬ 
tains no imperfections, such as black beans, shells, stones, 
broken beans, pods, or immature beans (“quakers”). Such 
a chop is rarely found. No. 2 has six imperfections, No. 3 
has 13, No. 4 has 29, No. 5 has 60, No. 6 has 110, No. 7 
has 200, and No. 8 has about 400, although on the ex¬ 
change these last two are graded by standard types. 

Victorias. Up to about the year 1917, Victoria coffees 
were held in even less favor by American traders than 
were Rios. As a rule, the bean was large and punky, of 
a dark brown or dingy color, and its flavor was described 
as muddy. Then, the coffee growers began to introduce 
modern machinery for handling the crops, with the result 
that the character of the product has been much improved, 
and the demand for it has been steadily growing. Many 
roasters who formerly used Rios straight for their lower 
grades have changed to Victorias, not only to improve the 
appearance of the roast, but to soften the harsh drinking 
qualities of the low-grade Rios. 

Bahias. Until recent years Bahia coffee has been de¬ 
cidedly unpopular in the United States, largely because of 
its peculiar smoky flavor, due to drying the coffee by means 
of wood fires, instead of by the usual sun method. This 
practice has been abandoned; Bahia coffee has shown a 
marked improvement in quality; and importations into the 
United States have increased. The Bahia coffee produced 
in the Chapada district is considered to be the best of the 
group. The bean is light-colored and of fair size. Other 


85 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


types are Caravella and Nazareth, both of which are below 
the standards demanded by the majority of those in the 
American trade. 

Maragogipe. This is a variety of Coffea arabica first 
observed growing near the town of Maragogipe on All 
Saints Bay, county of Maragogipe, Bahia, Brazil, where 
it is called Coffea indigenu. The green bean is of huge 
size, and varies in color from green to dingy brown. It is 
the largest of all coffee beans, and makes an elephantine 
roast, free from quakers, but woody and generally disagree¬ 
able in the cup. However, Dr. P. J. S. Cramer of the 
Netherlands government’s experimental garden in Bangelan, 
Java, regards it very highly, referring to it as “the finest 
coffee known,” and as having “a highly developed, splendid 
flavor.” This coffee is now found in practically all the 
producing countries, and shows the characteristics of the 
other coffees produced in the same soil. 

Mild Coffee Characteristics. 

Mexicans. Considering those mild coffees grown nearest 
the American market first, we come to the coffees of Mexico. 
All coffees grown in this republic are known as Mexicans. 
They are further divided according to the states and dis¬ 
tricts in which they are produced, and as to whether they 
are prepared according to the wet or the dry method. The 
types best known in the American market are Coatepec, 
Huatusco, Orizaba, Cordoba, Oaxaca, and Jalapa. The 
lesser known are the Uruapan, Michoacan, Colima, Chiapas, 
Triunfo, Tapachula, Sierra, Tabasco, Tampico, and Coat- 
zacoalcos. Some of these are rarely seen in the markets 
of the United States. 

The coffee most cultivated in Mexico is supposed to have, 
come from Mocha seed. Of this species is the Oaxaca 
coffee, which is valued because of its sharp acidity and 
excellent flavor, two-qualities that make it desirable for 
blending. The bean of the Sierra Oaxaca (common un- 


86 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 















































■ 



































COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 


washed) is not large, nor is the appearance stylish. The 
Pluma Oaxaca (washed) coffee, however, is a fancy bean 
and good for blending purposes. 

Coatepec coffees are among the finest grown in Mexico, 
and take rank with the world’s best grades. They are 
quite acidy, but have a desirable flavor; and, when blended 
with coffees like Bourbon Santos, make a satisfactory cup. 

The Orizaba, Huatusco, and Jalapa growths resemble 
Coatepecs, of which they are neighbors in the state of Vera 
Cruz. They are thin in body, but are stylish roasters, and 
have good cup qualities. As a class they do not possess 
the heavy body and acidity of genuine Coatepecs. Some 
Huatuscos are exceptions. Orizaba is superior to Jalapa. 
Chiapas and Tapachula coffees are generally more like 
Guatemalan growths than any others produced in Mexico, 
which is natural in view of the proximity of the districts 
to the northern boundary of Guatemala. The Sierra, Tam¬ 
pico, Tabasco, and Coatzacoalcos coffees are uncertain in 
quality; mostly they are low grade, some of them frequently 
possessing a groundy, flat, or Rioy flavor. 

Cordoba coffees lack the acidity and tang of the Oaxacas, 
but make a handsome roast. They are considered too 
neutral to form the basis of a blend, but may be used to 
balance the tang of other grades. 

All Mexicans are classed as Commons (customary or nat¬ 
ural), washed (W. I. P.), and Caracollilo (peaberry). 

Central Americans. Central American coffee is the 
general trade name applied to the growths produced in 
Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, 
and Panama, the countries comprising Central America. 

Guatemala. This country sends the largest quantity 
to the United States, and also produces the best average 
grades of the Central American districts. Guatemalas are 
mostly washed and are very stylish. The bean has a waxy, 
bluish color. It splits open when roasting and shows a 


87 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


white center. Low-grown Guatemalas are thin in the cup, 
but the coffees grown in the mountainous districts of Coban 
and Antigua are quite acidy and heavy in body. Some 
Cobans border on bitterness because of the extreme acidity. 
The Antiguas are medium, flinty beans, while Cobans are 
larger. Both grades are spicy and aromatic in the cup, 
and are particularly good blenders. Properly roasted to a 
light cinnamon color, and blended with a high-grade com¬ 
bination, Cobans make one of the most serviceable coffees 
on the American market. 

Most Guatemalas are washed and fall into these five 
general classes: 1. The extremely acid and flavory high- 
altitude growths of Antigua, Moran, and Amatitlan. 2. 
The heavy-bodied and finely acid coffees grown in the 
mountain districts of Coban, Costa Cuca, Tumbador, and 
Chuva. 3. The heavy-bodied but non-acid coffees in al¬ 
titudes of 2,000 to 3,000 feet. 4. Mild-cupping coffees 
grown from 1,500 to 2,500 feet. 5. Lower-altitude neutral¬ 
cupping coffees of the Bourbon type. 

Honduras. While the upland coffee of Honduras is 
of good quality, the general run of the country’s production 
seldom brings as high a price as Santos of equal grade. 
Nearly all Honduras coffee consists of small, round berries, 
bluish green in color. Very little of this growth comes to 
the United States, the bulk of the exports going to Eu¬ 
rope, where they command a high price, especially in France. 

Salvador. Salvador coffee is inferior to Guatemala’s 
product, grade for grade. Only a small proportion is 
washed, and the bulk of the crops is “naturals”; that is, 
unwashed. The bean is large and of fair average roast. 
The washed grades are fancy roasters, with very thin cup. 
The largest part of the production goes to Europe; some 
25 percent of the exports are brought into the United 
States through San Francisco. 

Nicaragua. The ordinary run of Nicaragua coffee (the 


88 


COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 


naturals) is looked upon in the United States as being of 
low quality, though the washed coffees from the Matagalpa 
district have plenty of acid in the cup and usually are fine 
roasters. Matagalpa beans are large and blue-tinged. Ger¬ 
many, Great Britain, and France take about all the Hon¬ 
duras coffee exported, only about six percent of the total 
coming to the United States. 

Costa Rica. Good grades of Costa Rican coffee, such as 
are grown in the Cartago, San Jose, Alajuela, and Grecia 
districts at high altitudes, are highly esteemed by blenders. 
They are characterized by their fine flavor, rich body, and 
sharp acidity. It is frequently declared that some of these 
are often acidy enough to sour cream if used straight. Due 
to careless methods of handling, sour or “hidy” beans are 
sometimes found in chops of Costa Ricans from the low¬ 
lands. 

Panama. Panama grows coffee only for domestic use, 
and consequently it is little known in foreign markets. The 
bean is of average size and tends toward green in color. 
In the cup it has a heavy body and a strong flavor. The 
coffee grown in Boquette Valley is considered to be of fine 
quality, due no doubt to the care given in cultivation by 
the American and English planters there. 

Colombians. Colombia produces some of the world’s 
finest coffees, of which the best known are Medellins, Man- 
izales, Bogotas, Bucaramangas, Tolimas, and Cucutas. 
Old-crop Colombians of the higher grades, when mellowed 
with age, have many of the characteristics of the best East 
India coffees, and in style and cup are difficult to distin¬ 
guish from the Mandhelings and the Ankolas of Sumatra. 
Such coffees are scarce on the American market, practically 
all the shipments coming to the United States being new 
crop and lacking some of the qualities of the mellowed 
beans. Compared with Santos coffee, good-grade Colom¬ 
bians give one-fourth more liquor to a given strength with 


89 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

better flavor and aroma. They are classed and graded as: 

Classes for All Colombians 

Caf6 Trillado (natural or sun dried), Caf6 Lavado (washed). 

Gradings for All Colombians 

Excel so (excellent), fantasia (excelso and'extra), extra (extra), 
primera (first), segunda (second), caracol (peaherry), monstruo 
(large and deformed), consumo (defective), pasilla (siftings). 

Medellins are a fancy, mountain-grown coffee, and are 
esteemed for their good qualities. The beans vary in size, 
and the color ranges from light to dark green, making a 
rather rough roast. In the cup they have a fine, rich, dis¬ 
tinctive flavor, and in the American grading are regarded 
as the best of Colombian commercial growths. 

Manizales rank next to Medellins, and have nearly the 
the same characteristics. 

Bogotas of good grade are noted for their acidity, body, 
and flavor. When the acidity is tempered with age, the 
coffee can be drunk “straight,” which cannot be done with 
many other growths. The Bogota green bean ranges from 
a blue-green bean to a fancy yellow. It is long, and gener¬ 
ally has a sharp turn in one end of the center stripe. It 
is a smooth roaster, and has a rich mellow flavor. 

Bucaramangas, grown in the district of that name, are 
regarded favorably in the American markets as good com¬ 
mercial coffees for blending purposes; the naturals have 
heavy body, but lack acidity and decided flavor, and are 
much used to give “backbone” to blends. The fancies 
sometimes push the superior East Indias for first place. 

Tolimas are considered a good-grade average coffee, and 
are characterized by a fair-sized bean, attractive style, and 
good cup quality. 

Cucuta coffees, though grown in Colombia, are generally 
classified among the Maracaibos of Venezuela, because they 
are mostly shipped from that port. They are described, 
accordingly, with the Venezuelan coffees. 


90 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 




Samples of Typical Roasted Coffee Beans 












































































. 



























































































COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 


Venezuela. The coffees of Venezuela are generally 
grouped under the heads of Caracas, Puerto Cabello, and 
Maracaibo, the names of the ports through which they are 
exported. Each group is further subdivided by the names 
of the districts in which the principal plantations lie. La 
Guaira coffee includes that produced in the vicinity of Ca¬ 
racas and Cumana. 

Caracas coffee is one of the best known in the American 
market. The washed Caracas is in steady demand in 
France and Spain. The bean is bluish in color, somewhat 
short, and of uniform size. The liquor has a rather light 
body. Some light-blue washed Caracas coffees are very de¬ 
sirable, and have a peculiar flavor that is quite pleasant 
to the educated, palate. Caracas chops rarely hold their 
style for any length of time, as the owners usually are not 
willing to dry properly and thoroughly before milling. 
When, however, the price is right, American buyers will 
use some Caracas chops instead of Bogotas. At equal 
prices the latter have the preference, as they have more 
body in the cup. Puerto Cabello and Cumana coffees are 
valued just below Caracas. They are grown at a lower 
altitude, and have been found to be somewhat inferior in 
flavor. 

Merida and Tachira coffees are considered the best of 
the Maracaibo grades,Tovars and Trujillos being classed as 
lower in trade value. Though Cucuta coffee is grown in 
the Colombian district of that name, it is largely shipped 
through Maracaibo, and hence is classed among the Mara¬ 
caibo types. It ranks with Meridas and fine-grade Boconos, 
and somewhat resembles the Java bean in form and roast, 
but is decidedly different in the cup. Washed Cucutas 
are noted for their large size, roughness, and waxy color. 
They make a good-appearing roast, splitting open, and 
showing irregular white centers. New-crop beans are some¬ 
times sharply acid, though they mellow with age and gain 
in body. 


91 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


Until recent years, Tachira coffee was alaways sold as 
Cucuta; but now there is a tendency to ship it under the 
name Tachira-Venezuela, while true Cucuta is marked Cu¬ 
cuta-Colombia. Tachiras closely resemble the true Cucutas, 
grade for grade. Up to about 1905, the coffees grown near 
Salazar, in Colombia, came to market under the name of 
Salazar; but since then they have been included among 
the Cucuta grades and are sold in the market under that 
name. 

The state of Tachira lies next to the Colombian boun¬ 
dary, and its mountains produce much fine washed coffee. 
This has size and fair style, as a rule, but does not possess 
cup qualities to make it much sought. It ages well and, 
being of good body, the old crops, other things being equal, 
frequently bring a tidy premium. The Rubio section of 
Tachira produces the best of its washed coffees. 

The Meridas are raised at higher altitudes than Cucutas, 
and good grades are sought for their peculiarly delicate 
flavor—which is neither acidy nor bitter—and heavy body. 
They rank as the best by far of the Maracaibo type. The 
bean is high-grown, of medium size, and roundish. It 
is well knit, and brings the highest price, while it still holds 
its bluish style, as it then retains its delicate aroma and 
character. The trillados of Merida run unevenly. 

Tovars rank between Trujillos and Tachiras. They are 
fair to good body without acidity; make a duller roast than 
Cucutas, but contain fewer quakers. They are used for 
blending with Bourbon Santos. Boconos are light in color 
and body. They are of two classes; one a round, small 
to medium bean; and the other larger and softer. Their 
flavor is rather neutral, and they are frequently used as 
fillers in blends. Trujillos lack acidity and make a dull, 
rough roast, unless aged. They are blended with Bourbon 
Santos to make a low-priced palatable coffee. Some coffees 
of merit are produced at Santa Ana, Monte Carmelo, and 
Bocono in Trujillo. 


92 


COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 


Other South American Countries. The coffees from 
other South American countries, even where there is an 
appreciable production, are not important factors in in¬ 
ternational trade. The coffee of Ecuador, shipped through 
the port of Guayaquil, goes mostly to Chile, a compara¬ 
tively small quantity being exported to the United States. 
The bean is small to medium in size, pea-green in color, and 
not desirable in the cup. The coffee is about equal to low- 
grade Brazil, and is used principally as a filler. Peru 
produces an ever-lessening quantity of coffee, the bulk of 
the exports in prewar years going to Germany, Chile, and 
the United Kingdom. It is a low-altitude growth, and is 
considered poor grade. The bean ranges from medium to 
bold in size, and from bluish to yellow in color. Bo¬ 
livia is an unimportant factor in the international coffee 
trade, most of its exports going to Chile. The chief variety 
produced is called the Yunga, which is considered to be of 
superior quality, but only a small quantity is grown. Gui¬ 
ana’s coffee trade is insignificant. The three best-known 
types are the Surinam, Demerara, and Cayenne, named 
after the ports through which they are shipped. 

West Indies. The chief producing districts are found 
on the islands of Porto Rico, Haiti (and Santo Domingo), 
Jamaica, Guadeloupe, and Curasao. Coffees coming from 
these islands are generally known by the name of the coun¬ 
try of production, and may be further identified by the 
names of the districts in which they are grown. 

Porto Rico. Since the United States took possession 
of Porto Rico, soil experts have endeavored to raise the 
quality of the coffee grown there, especially the lower grades, 
which had peculiarly wild characteristics. Today, the su¬ 
perior grades of Porto Rican coffees rank among the best 
growths known to the trade. The bean is large, uniform, 
and stylish; ranging in color from a light gray-blue to a 
dark green-blue. Some of these are artificially colored for 


93 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


foreign markets. The coffee roasts well, and has a heavy 
body, similar to the fanciest Mexicans and Colombians. 
Its cup is not so rich, but it makes a good blend. Porto 
Rican coffees command a higher price in France than in 
the United States, which accounts for the larger propor¬ 
tion of exports to Europe, excepting when the French mar¬ 
ket was cut off during the World War. 

Jamaica. Jamaica produces two distinct types of coffee, 
the highland and the lowland growths. Among the first- 
named is the celebrated Blue Mountain coffee, which has 
a well-developed pale blue-green bean that makes a good¬ 
appearing roast and a pleasantly aromatic cup. It is fre¬ 
quently compared with the fancy Cobans of Guatemala. 
The lowland coffee is a poorer grade, and consists largely 
of a mixture of different growths produced on the plains. 
It is a fair-sized bean, green to yellow in the “natural” and 
blue-green when washed. In the cup it has a grassy flavor, 
but is flat when drunk with cream. It is used chiefly as 
a filler in blends and for French roasts. 

Haiti and Santo Domingo. The coffees of these two 
republics have like characteristics, being grown on the same 
island and in about the same. climatic and soil conditions. 
Careless cultivation and preparation methods are respon¬ 
sible for the generally poor quality of these coffees. When 
properly grown and cured, they rank well with high-grade 
washed varieties, and have a rich, fairly acid flavor in the 
cup. The bean is blue-green, and makes a handsome roast. 

Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe coffee is distinguishable by 
its green, long, and slightly thick bean, covered by a pel¬ 
licle of whitish silvery color, which separates from the bean 
in the roast. It has excellent cup qualities. 

Martinique. This island formerly produced a coffee 
closely resembling the Guadeloupe; but no coffee is now 
grown there, though some Guadeloupe growths are shipped 
from Martinique, and bear its name. 


94 


COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 


Other West Indian Islands. Among the other West 
Indian islands producing small quantities of coffee are 
Cuba, Trinidad, Dominica, Barbados, and Curasao. The 
growths are generally good quality, bearing a close re¬ 
semblance to one another. In the past, Cuba produced a 
fine grade; but the industry is now practically extinct, though 
it has lately showed signs of revival. 

Arabia. For many generations, Mocha coffee has been 
recognized throughout the world as the best coffee obtain¬ 
able; and, until the Pure Food Law went into effect in the 
United States, other high-grade coffees were frequently 
sold by American firms under the name of Mocha. Now, 
only coffees grown in Arabia are entitled to that valuable 
trade name. They grow in a small area in the mountainous 
regions of the southwestern portion of the Arabian penin¬ 
sula, in the province of Yemen, and are known locally by 
the names of the districts in which they are produced. 
Commercially they are graded as follows: Mocha Extra, 
for all extra qualities; Mocha No. 1, consisting of only 
perfect berries; No. 1-A, containing some dust, but other¬ 
wise free of imperfections; No. 2, showing a few broken 
beans and quakers; No. 3, having a heavier percentage of 
broken and quakers and also some dust. 

Mocha beans are very small, hard, roundish, and ir¬ 
regular in form and size. In color, they shade from olive 
green to pale yellow, the bulk being olive green. The roast 
is poor and uneven, but the coffee’s virtues are shown in 
the cup. It has a distinctive winy flavor, and is heavy 
with acidity, two qualities which make a straight Mocha 
brew especially valuable as an after-dinner coffee, and also 
esteemed for blending with fancy, mild, washed types, par¬ 
ticularly East Indian growths. 

As in other countries, the coffees grown on the highlands 
in Yemen are better than the lowland growths. As a rule, 
the low-altitude bean is larger and more oblong than that 
grown in the highlands, due to its quicker development 

95 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

in the regions where the rainfall, though not great, is more 
abundant. 

While Mocha coffees are known commercially by grade 
numbers, the planters and Arabian traders also designate 
them by the name of the district or province in which each 
is grown. Among the better grades thus labeled are the 
Yafey, the Anezi, the Mattari, the Sanani, the Sharki, and 
the Haimi-Harazi. For the poorer grades, these names 
are used: Remi, Bourai, Shami, Yemeni, and Maidi. Of 
these varieties, the Mattari, a hard and regular bean, pale 
yellow in color, commands the highest price, with the Ya¬ 
fey a close second. Harazi coffee heads the market for 
quantity, coupled with general average of quality. 

India and Ceylon. Coffees from India and Ceylon 
are marketed almost exclusively in London, little reaching 
the American trade. Of the Indian growths, Malabars, 
grown on the western slope of the Ghat Mountains, are 
classed commercially as the best. The bean is rather small 
and blue-green in color. In the cup it has a distinctive 
strong flavor and deep color. Mysore coffee ranks next 
in favor on the English market. It is mountain grown, and 
the bean is large and blue-green in color. Tellicherry is 
another good-grade coffee, closely resembling Malabar. 
Coorg (Kurg) coffee is an inferior growth. It is lowland 
type, and in the cup is thin and flat. The bean is large 
and flat, and tends toward dark green in color. Travan- 
core is another lowland growth, ranking about with Coorg, 
and has the same general characteristics. See the Complete 
Reference Table in All About Coffee for details. 

Ceylon, although it once was one of the world’s most im¬ 
portant producers, has been losing ground as a coffee-pro¬ 
ducing country since 1890. Ceylon coffees are classified 
commercially as “native,” “plantation,” and “mountain.” 

French Indo-China. The coffee of French Indo-China 
is highly prized in France, where the bulk of the exports 


96 


COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 

goes. The coffee tree grows well in the provinces of Ton¬ 
kin, Annam, Cambodia, and Cochin-China, Tonkin is the 
largest producer, and grows the best varieties. In the cup, 
Tonkin coffee is thought by French traders to compare 
favorably with Mocha, Of the several varieties of Coffea 
arable a grown in Indo- China, the Grand Bourbon , Bourbon 
rond, and Bourbon Le Roy are the best known. The first- 
named is a large bean of good quality; the second is a small, 
round bean of superior grade; and the third is a still smaller 
bean of fair cup quality. 

Abyssinia. The coffee grown in Abyssinia is classified 
commercially into two varieties; Harari, which is grown 
principally in the district around Harar, and Abyssinian, 
produced mainly in the provinces of Kaffa, Sidamo, and 
Guma. Harari coffee is the fruit of cultivated trees, while 
Abyssinian comes from wild trees. The first-named pro¬ 
duces a long and well-shaped berry, and is often referred 
to as Longberry Harari. The bean is larger than the 
Mocha, but similar in general appearance. Its color shades 
from blue-green to yellow. Good grades of Harari have 
cup characteristics resembling Mocha, and by some are 
preferred to Mocha, because of their winier cup flavor. 
The Abyssinian coffee is considered much inferior to Ha¬ 
rari, and chops generally contain many imperfections. The 
bean is dark gray in color. Little Abyssinian coffee comes 
to the United States. 

Many other African countries produce coffee, but little 
of it ever reaches the North American market. Uganda, in 
British East Africa, grows a good grade of Robusta coffee, 
which is valued on the London market. Liberian coffee, 
grown on the west coast, used to be mixed with Bourbon 
Santos to some extent; but it is generally considered low 
grade, although it makes a handsome, elephantine roast. 
The product of Guinea is a very small bean, half way be¬ 
tween a peaberry and a flat bean, and has a dingy brown 


97 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


color. It is considered worthless as a drink. A medium¬ 
sized, strong-flavored bean that is rich in the cup is grown 
in the African Congo district. In Angola a fair quantity 
of coffee is produced. In the cup it has a strong and 
pungent flavor, but lacks smoothness and aroma. Zanzibar 
produces a pleasing coffee in very limited quantities. The 
bean is medium size, and regular in shape. Mozambique’s 
coffee is greenish in color, of medium size, and mellow. The 
production is small. Madagascar produces an insignifi¬ 
cant quantity for export, although the coffee is considered 
fair average, with rich flavor, and considerable fragrance. 
Bourbon coffee, grown on the island of Reunion, com¬ 
mands a high price in the French market, where practically 
all exports go. It is a small, flinty bean, and gives a rich 
cup and fragrance. 

East Indian Islands. Some of the coffees from the 
East Indian islands rank among the best in the world, par¬ 
ticularly those from Sumatra. East India coffees are dis¬ 
tinguished by their smooth, heavy body in the cup, the fancy 
grades giving an almost sirupy richness. 

Java. Jave coffees are generally of a smaller bean than 
those from Sumatra, and are not considered so high grade. 
The bulk of the new-crop growths have a grassy flavor 
which most people find unpleasant when drunk straight. 
Under the old culture system, coffee was bought by the 
government, and held in godowns from two to three years, 
until it had become mellow with age. In late years, this 
system has been abandoned, and the planters now sell their 
product as they please, and in most cases without mellowing 
excepting as they age during the long sea voyage from 
Batavia to destination. Before the advent of large fleets 
of steamers in the East Indian trade, the coffee was brought 
to America in sailing vessels that required from three to 
four months for the trip. During the voyage, the coffee 
went through a sweating process which turned the beans 


98 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Samples of Typical Roasted Coffee Beans 































































. 















































■ 































































COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 


from a light green to a dark brown, and considerably en¬ 
hanced their cup values. The sweating was due to the 
coffee being loaded when moist, and then practically sealed 
in the vessel’s hold during all its trip through the tropical 
seas. As a consequence, the cargo steamed and foamed, 
and as a rule part of the coffee became moldy, the damage 
seldom extending more than an inch or two into the mats. 
Sweated coffees commanded from three to five cents more 
than those that came in “pale.” 

Before the Java coffee trade began to decline in the latter 
part of the 19th century, Coffea arabica was grown abun¬ 
dantly throughout the island. Each residency had numerous 
estates, and their names were given to the coffees produced. 
The best coffees came from Preanger, Cheribon, Buitenzorg, 
and Batavia, ranking in merit in the order named. All 
Java coffees are known commercially either as private 
growth, or as blue bean washed, the former being cured by 
either the washing or the dry hulling method, while the 
latter are washed. Private growths are usually a pale 
yellow, the bean being short, round, and slightly convex. 
It makes a handsome, even roast, showing a full white stripe. 
The washed variety is a pale blue-green, the bean closely 
resembling the private growth in form and roast. These 
coffees have a distinctive character in the cup that is much 
different from any other coffee grown. Their liquor is thin. 

All the better known coffees of Java, which are designated 
by the districts in which they are grown, are listed in the 
Complete Reference Table in All About Coffee. Coffee 
from a few of the many districts comes to the North Ameri¬ 
can market. Among those which are sold in the United 
States are the Kadoe and Semarang, both of which are 
small, yellowish green, and the Malang, a green, hard bean 
which makes a better roast than Kadoe and Semarang, but 
is inferior to them in the cup. 

Sumatra. Sumatra has the reputation of producing some 
of the finest and highest-priced coffees in the world, such 


99 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


as Mandheling, Ankola, Ayer Bangies, Padang Interior, 
and Palembang. Mandheling coffee is a large, brownish 
bean which roasts dull, but is generally free from quakers. 
It is very heavy in body, and has a unique flavor that easily 
distinguishes it from any other growth. The Ankola bean 
is shorter and better appearing than Mandheling, but other¬ 
wise bears a close resemblance. Its flavor is only slightly 
under Mandheling, and, like that coffee, it is recommended 
for blending with the best grades of Mocha. While the 
Ayer Bangies bean is somewhat larger than the other two 
just mentioned, it is not so dark brown in color, and is not 
quite so heavy in body; the flavor is very delicate. These 
three growths are known in the trade as the “Fancies,” and 
are considered the best of Sumatra’s production. 

The Sumatra coffee best known to the American trade is 
the Padang Interior, which is shipped through the port of 
Padang on Sumatra’s west coast. The bean is irregular 
in form and color, and makes a dull roast. However, the 
flavor is good, although it lacks the richness of the Fancies. 
Another celebrated coffee grown on the west coast is the 
Boekit Gompong, grown on the estate of that name near 
Padang. It is a high-grade coffee, making a handsome roast, 
and possessing a delicate flavor. The foregoing coffees are 
produced on what were formerly termed government estates, 
and during the heyday of government control were sold by 
auction and came mostly to the United States. 

Among the private-estate coffees, Corinchies take first 
rank for quality, some traders saying that they are the best 
in international commerce. They closely resemble Ankolas, 
but range a cent or two lower in price. Next in order of 
merit is Timor coffee, grown on the island of that name. 
It is not so attractive in appearance, roast, or cup quality 
as the Corinchie. A grade below Timors is Boengie coflee, 
which is seldom seen on the North American market. Kroe 
coffee is better known and more widely used in the United 
States. The bean is large, but has an attractive appearance. 


100 


COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 


Kroes are of heavy body, of somewhat groundy flavor when 
new crop, and are good roasters and blenders. Other East 
Indian coffees are Teagals, Balis, and Macassars, all of 
which are second-rate growths as compared with the bulk 
of Sumatras, grade for grade. The Macassars are produced 
in the district of that name on island of Celebes. The best 
coffee grown in Celebes comes from the province of 
Menado, and is known by that name. It is thought to be of 
superior quality, and commands a high price in Europe. 

The Pacific Islands. The Philippine Islands have not 
figured in international coffee trade since 1892, although in 
preceding years they exported several million pounds of an 
average good grade of coffee. While coffee is one of the 
shade trees used by householders in Guam, none of the fruit 
is exported. Coffee production is an unimportant industry 
in Samoa, Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and 
other Pacific islands, and none is grown for export. 

Hawaii. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the 
Hawaiian Islands have taken a position of increasing im¬ 
portance, shipping some 2,000,000 pounds of good-quality 
coffee to the United States, their biggest customer. Coffee 
grows to some extent on all the islands of the group, but 
fully 95 percent is raised in the districts of Kona, Puna, 
and Hamakua on the main island of Hawaii. All Hawaiian 
coffee is high grade, and is generally large bean, blue-green 
in color when new crop, and yellow-brown when aged. It 
makes a handsome roast, and has a fine flavor that is smooth 
and not too acid. It blends well with any high-grade mild 
coffee. Kona coffee, grown in the district of that name, 
commands the highest price. Old-crop Kona coffee is said 
by some trade authorities to be equal to either Mocha or Old 
Government Java. 

Appearance, Aroma, and Flavor in Cup-Testing 

Before the beginning of the 20th century, practically all 
coffees bought and sold in the United States were judged 


101 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


for merit simply by the appearance of the green or roasted 
bean. Since that time, the importance of testing the drink¬ 
ing qualities has become generally recognized, and today 
every progressive coffee buyer has his sample-roasting and 
testing outfit with which to carry out painstaking cup tests. 
Both buyers and sellers use the cup test, the former to 
determine the merits of the coffee they are buying, and tne 
latter to ascertain the proper value of the chop under con¬ 
sideration. Frequently a test is made to fix the relative 
desirability of various growths considered as a whole, using 
composite samples that are supposed to give representation 
to an entire crop. 

The first step in testing coffee is to compare the appear¬ 
ance of the green bean of a chop with a sample of known 
standard value for that particular kind of coffee. The next 
step is to compare the appearance when roasted. Then 
comes the appearance and aroma test, when it is ground; 
and finally, the most difficult of all, the trial of the flavor 
and aroma of the liquid. 

Naturally, the tester gives much care to proper roasting 
of the samples to be examined. He recognizes several 
different kinds of roasts which he terms the light, the 
medium, the dark, the Italian, and the French roasts, all 
of which vary in the shadings of color, and each of which 
gives a different taste in the cup. The careful tester watches 
the roast closely to see whether the beans acquire a dull or 
bright finish, and to note also if there are many quakers, 
or off-color beans. When the proper roasting point is 
reached, he smells the beans when still hot to determine 
their aroma. In some growths and grades, he will fre¬ 
quently smell of them as they cool off, because the character 
changes as the heat leaves them, as in the case of many 
Maracaibo grades. 

After roasting, the actual cup testing begins. Two 
methods are employed,—the blind cup test, in which there is 
no clue to the identity of the kind of coffee in the cup, and 

102 


COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS 


the open test, in which the tester knows beforehand the 
particular coffee he is to examine. The former is most 
generally employed by buyers and sellers; although a large 
number of experts, who do not let their knowledge inter¬ 
fere with their judgment, use the open method. 

In both systems the amount of ground coffee placed in 
the cup is carefully weighed so that the strength will be 
standard. Generally, the cups are marked on the bottom 
for identification after the examination. Before pouring 
on the hot water to make the brew, the aroma of the freshly 
ground coffee is carefully noted to see if it is up to standard. 
In pouring the water, care is exercised to keep the tempera¬ 
ture constant in the cups, so that the strength in all will be 
equal. When the water is poured directly on the grounds, a 
crust or scum is formed. Before this crust breaks, the 
tester sniffs the aroma given off; this is called the wet- 
smell, or crust, test, and is considered of great importance. 

Of course, the taste of the brew is the most important test. 
Equal amounts of coffee are sipped from each cup, the tester 
holding each sip in his mouth only long enough to get the 
full strength of the flavor. He spits out the coffee into a 
large brass cuspidor designed for the purpose. The expert 
never swallows the liquor. 

Cup testing calls for keenly developed senses of sight, 
smell, and taste, and the faculty for remembering delicate 
shadings in each sense. By sight, the coffee man judges the 
size, shape, and color of the green and roasted bean, which 
are important factors in determining commercial values. He 
can tell also whether the coffee is of the washed or un¬ 
washed variety, and whether it contains many imperfections, 
such as quakers, pods, stones, brokens, off-colored beans, 
and the like. By his sense of smell of the roast and of the 
brew, he gages the strength of the aroma, which also enters 
into the valuation calculation. His palate tells him many 
things about a coffee brew,—if the drink has body and is 
smooth, rich, acidy, or mellow; if it is winy, neutral, harsh, 

103 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


or Rioy; if it is musty, groundy, woody, or grassy; or if it 
is rank, hidy (sour, muddy, or bitter). These are trade 
designations of the different shades of flavor to be found in 
the coffees coming to the North American market, and each 
has an influence on the price at which they will be sold. 

The up-to-date cup tester requires special equipment to 
get the best results. A typical installation consists of a gas 
sample-roasting outfit, employing at least a single cylinder 
holding about six ounces of coffee, and perhaps a battery 
of a dozen or more; an electric grinding mill; a testing table, 
with a top that can be revolved by hand; a pair of accurately 
adjusted balance scales; one or more brass kettles; a gas 
stove for heating water; sample pans; many china or glass 
cups; silver spoons; and a brass cuspidor that stands waist 
high and is shaped like an hour glass. 

Since the World War, there have been some notable 
changes in the buying of coffees, particularly in European 
markets. For example, the old idea of buying fancy coffees 
at fancy prices is probably gone for good in Europe. 



104 


CHAPTER X 


COFFEE BLENDING 

Blending green coffees — Properly balanced blends — 
Low-priced and high-priced blends — Blends for 
restaurant and hotel trade — Doubtful value of 
sample blends. 

M OST roasters blend the different types of coffee when 
green. Some blend them after they have been 
roasted separately. When blended before roasting, 
the coffees are mixed by a machine built especially for that 
purpose. The mixing machine in general use consists of a 
large metal cylinder which, in wholesale operations, is 
revolved by the factory’s general power plant or by a 
separate motor. The cylinder is equipped on the inside with 
sets of reverse-screw mixing flanges that tumble the beans 
around until they are thoroughly blended, and there is 
usually a fan attachment to remove dust. This operation 
serves also to smooth down and to polish the surfaces of the 
beans, which add to the style of the coffee when roasted. 
The average blending machine will mix from 10 to 20 bags 
of coffee at a time. The actual mixing requires less than 
five minutes, but a longer period is needed for feeding and 
discharging. 

Rarely is a single kind of coffee drunk straight. The 
common practice in all countries is to mix different varieties 
having opposing characteristics so as to obtain a smoother 
beverage. This is called blending, a process that has at¬ 
tained the standing of an art in the United States. Most 
package coffees are blends. In addition to other qualities, 
the practical coffee blender must have a natural aptitude for 
the work. He must also have long experience before he 
becomes proficient, and must be acquainted with the differ- 


105 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


ent properties of all the coffees grown, or at least of those 
which come to his market. Furthermore, he must know the 
variations in characteristics of current crops, for in most 
coffees no two crops are equal in trade values. Innumer¬ 
able blends are possible, with more than a hundred different 
coffees to draw upon. 

A blend may consist of two or more kinds of coffee, but 
the general practice is to employ several kinds; so that, if 
at any time one cannot be obtained, its absence from the 
blend will not be so noticeable as would be the case if only 
two or three kinds were used. 

In blending coffees, consideration is given first to the 
shades of flavor in the cup and next to price. The blender 
describes flavors as acidy, bitter, smooth, neutral, flat, wild, 
grassy, groundy, sour, fermented, and hidy, and he mixes 
the coffees accordingly to obtain the desired taste in the cup. 
Naturally, the wild, sour, groundy, fermented, and hidy 
kinds are avoided as much as possible. Coffees with a Rio 
flavor are used only in the cheaper blends. 

Generally speaking, a properly balanced blend should 
have a full rich body as a basis, and to this should be added 
a growth to give it some acid character, and one to give it 
increased aroma. 

Personal preference is the determining factor in making 
up a blend. Some blenders prefer a coffee with plenty of 
acid taste, while others choose the non-acid cup. For the 
first-named, the blender will mix together the coffees that 
have an acidy characteristic, while for a non-acidy blend he 
will mix an acidy growth with one having a neutral flavor. 

Coffees may be divided into four great classes,—the 
neutral-flavored, the sweet, the acidy, and the bitter. All 
East Indian coffees, except Ceylons, Malabars, and the other 
Hindustan growths, are classified as bitter, as are old brown 
Bucaramangas, brown Bogotas, and brown Santos. The 
acid coffees are generally the new-crop, washed varieties of 
the western hemisphere, such as Mexicans, Costa Ricas, 


106 


COFFEE BLENDING 


Bogotas, Caracas, Guatemalas, Santos, etc. However, the 
acidity may be toned down by age so that they become sweet 
or sweet-bitter. Red Santos is generally a sweet coffee, and 
is prized by blenders. High-grade washed Santo Domingo 
and Haiti coffees are sweet both when new crop and when 
aged. 

Practical coffee blenders do not mix two new-crop acid 
coffees, or two old-crop bitter kinds, unless their bitterness 
or acidity is counteracted by coffees with opposite flavors. 
One blender insists that every blend should contain three 
coffees. 

Some Bourbon and flat-beaned Santos coffees are better 
when new, and some are better when old; but a blend of 
fine old-crop coffee with a snappy new-crop coffee gives a 
better result than either separately. A new-crop Bourbon 
and an old yellow flat bean make a better blend than a new- 
crop flat bean and an old-crop Bourbon. Probably the very 
best result in a low-priced blend may be obtained by using 
one-half old-crop Bourbon Santos with one-half new-crop 
Haiti or Santo Domingo of the cheaper grades. 

Typical low-priced coffee blends in the United States may 
be made up of a good Santos, possibly a Bourbon, and 
some low-cost Mexican, Central American, Colombian, or 
Venezuelan coffee, the Santos counteracting these acidy 
Milds. 

Going next higher in the scale of price, fancy old Bourbon 
Santos is used with one-third fancy old Cucuta or a good 
Trujillo. 

For a blend costing about five cents more a pound retail, 
one-third fancy old Cucuta or Merida is blended with fancy 
old Bourbon Santos. 

The highest-priced blend may contain two-thirds of a 
fine private-estate Sumatra and one-third Mocha or Long- 
berry Harari. 

In blending coffees, those coffees which hold their own 
from the start, or boiling point, until they become cold, or 


107 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


even improve right through, are more desirable; those which 
are best at the drinking point should be given the preference. 

Coffee Blends for Restaurants 

The coffee of prime importance in preparing restaurant 
blends is Bogota. We advise the use of a full-bodied 
Bogota and an acid Bourbon Santos in the proportion of 
three-fourths Bogota to one-fourth Santos. Blends may 
also be made up from combinations of Bogota, Mexicans, 
and Guatemalas. 

The average blend of good coffee when made up, two and 
one-half pounds of coffee to five gallons of water, will 
produce a liquor of good color and strength. For many 
hotels, however, this may not answer, as it is not heavy 
enough. More coffee must then be used, or 10 percent of 
chicory added. A blend with chicory may be made by using 
two-thirds Bogota, one-third Bourbon Santos, and 10 per¬ 
cent chicory. No steward, hotel man, or restaurant man 
should, however, advertise “coffee” on his menu, and then 
serve a drink employing chicory; because, while there is no 
federal law against such a practice, there are state laws 
against it. Chicory is all right in its place, and many prefer 
a drink made from coffee and chicory; but such a drink 
cannot properly be called coffee. 

Hotel men should purchase their coffee in the bean, and 
do their own grinding. Then they need never have cause 
to complain that their coffee man deceived them, or that 
some salesman misled them. The hotel steward wishing to 
furnish his patrons with a heavy-bodied coffee, particularly 
a black after-dinner coffee, without chicory, will use three, 
four, or even four and one-half pounds of ground coffee 
to five gallons of water. 

With so wide a choice of coffees to choose from, a coffee 
blender can make up many combinations to meet the de¬ 
mands of his trade. Probably no two blenders use exactly 
the same varieties in exactly the same proportions to make 


108 


COFFEE BLENDING 


up a blend to sell at the same price. However, they all 
follow the same general principles laid down in the fore¬ 
going flavor classification of the world’s coffees. 

Formulas for coffee blends are best worked out in actual 
experience. So much depends upon the nature of the 
business, whether wholesale or retail, capacity of the plant, 
nature of equipment (with or without grinders, packing 
machines, etc.), class of trade sought, price of blend, etc. 
The beginner should consult the machinery man from whom 
he buys his roasting equipment or his green-coffee supply 
house. After careful consideration, the author of this work 
has decided to omit specific formulas from the volume, for 
the reason that they are so likely to prove misleading. 
What with constantly changing market conditions, differ¬ 
ences in chops of the same coffee, it is exceedingly difficult 
to lay down hard and fast rules for any set of sample 
blends. It is doubtful if any of the large roasters and 
successful blenders ever use the same coffees in the same 
proportions three times running, and yet they know how to 
keep their blends uniform. A good knowledge of cup 
testing becomes a first essential for successful blending. 
The general suggestions given here are as far as the author 
feels it safe to go in this matter. For more specific rules, 
the novice needs to consult competent trade authorities, and 
his trade paper is one of the best places for him to go to be 
put into touch with these. 



109 






COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Modern Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant: Datly Capacity, 1,000 Bags 
Twelve Jubilee machines in the roasting room of the Jewel Tea Co., Hoboken, 




























CHAPTER XI 


COFFEE ROASTING 

Separating, milling, and mixing — The roasting 
operation — Dry and wet roasts — Finishing and 
coaling — Cost card for roasters — Cooling and 
stoning — Roasting equipment — Blending roasted 
coffee — A trip through a model coffee-roasting 
plant — Evolution of coffee-roasting apparatus. 

T HE most modern way to roast coffee is in revolving, 
perforated metal cylinders, by coal or gas fuel. For 
anyone to make a real success in the coffee business, 
he must have had considerable experience in this particular 
line. However, in this business as in others, intelligent, 
application spells success, but, whether the business is 
wholesale or retail, it takes time. The roaster man, or 
coffee chef, is the first and most important cook necessary 
to a good cup of coffee. 

A study of the chemistry of roasted coffee discloses that 
in the roasting process the beans swell up by the liberation 
of gases, and the aromatic oils are developed or cooked and 
made ready for solution in water when the cells are broken 
up by grinding. 

Separating, Milling, and Mixing 

The roasting operation is preceded by separating, milling, 
and mixing. Where the coffees have not been graded and 
cleaned before delivery to the roasting plant, they must be 
run through a separator for grading closely as regards the 
size of the beans, and particularly for the separation of 
round beans, or peaberry. Then they must be milled and 
mixed. This operation may be performed in special ma¬ 


il! 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


chines designed for these purposes, or the regular roasting 
cylinder may be utilized. 

The Roasting Operation 

“Roasting per se is not such a difficult operation as many 
experts would have us believe,” says A. L. Burns, an 
authority on the subject. Manufacturers of modern coffee- 
roasting machines have made them practically fool proof. 
In this business, however, experience is, as always, the best 
teacher. 

A typical roasting machine employs an open perforated 
metal cylinder, the inside being arranged with reverse 
spiral flanges which mix the coffee, while the cylinder re¬ 
volves over the fire. It is fitted with a front head opening 
to receive the green coffee, and through this, when turned 
to the lower position, the finished product is discharged into 
the cooler box. 

Modern coffee-roasting machines provide for easy con¬ 
trol of the heat (from coal, coke, or gas fuel), for constantly 
mixing the coffee in such a manner that the heat is trans¬ 
mitted uniformly to the entire batch, for carrying away all 
steam and smoke rapidly, for easy testing of the progress 
of the roast, and for immediate discharge when desired. The 
operator’s problem, therefore, is the regulation of the heat 
and deciding just when the desired roasting has been ac¬ 
complished. 

If all coffees were alike, roasting would soon be almost 
automatic. In some plants most of the work is one 
uniform grade or blend; but coffees which vary greatly in 
moisture-content, in flinty or spongy nature, and in various 
other characteristics, will puzzle the operator until he 
establishes a personal acquaintance with them in various 
combinations in repeated roasting operations. The roaster 
man, therefore, must be able to observe closely, to draw 
sensible conclusions, and to remember what he learns. 
Roasting coffee is work of a sort which anybody can do, 


112 


COFFEE ROASTING 


which a few people can do really well, and no one so well 
but that further improvement is possible. 

Because the roasting principles vary in different green 
coffees, trained study and a nice science in timing the roast 
and manipulating the fire are necessary to a perfect de¬ 
velopment of aroma and flavor. There is no absolute 
standard of what the best roasting results are. Some dealers 
want the coffee beans swelled up to the bursting point, while 
others would object to so showy a development. Some care 
nothing at all about appearance as compared with cup value, 
while others insist on a bright style even at some sacrifice 
of quality. Business judgment must decide what goods can 
be sold most profitably. 

Coffee roasting requires a temperature of about 420° 
Fahr. A slow roast is favored by some roaster men; others 
argue that this bakes the coffee and does not give full de¬ 
velopment. The quicker the roast, the better the coffee. 

So there is no universal rule for the degree to which 
coffee should be roasted. The average time in the United 
States is 15 to 30 minutes, depending on the fuel and ma¬ 
chine employed. (The Germans have “quick roasters” that 
do it in 3J4 to 10 minutes.) The trade knows these differ¬ 
ent roasts: Light, cinnamon, medium, high, city, full city, 
French, and Italian. The city roast is a dark bean, while 
full city is a few degrees darker. In the French roast, the 
bean is cooked until the natural oil appears on the surface* 
and in the Italian it is roasted to the point of actual car¬ 
bonization, so that it can be easily powdered. Germany likes 
a roast similar to the French type, while Scandinavia pre¬ 
fers the high Italian roast. 

In the United States, the lighter roast is favored on the 
Pacific Coast; the darkest, in the South; and a medium- 
colored roast, in the eastern states. The cinnamon roast 
is most favored by the trade in Boston. 

Coffee loses weight in roasting; the loss varying, depend¬ 
ing upon the kind of bean, its age, and the style of roast. 


113 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


The average loss is about 16 percent It has been estimated 
that 100 pounds of coffee in the cherry produce 25 pounds 
in the parchment; that 100 pounds in the parchment pro¬ 
duce 84 pounds of cleaned coffee; that 100 pounds of 
cleaned coffee produce 84 pounds of roasted. 

After the coffee has been in the roasting cylinder for a* 
short time, the color of the bean becomes a yellowish brown, 
which gradually deepens as it cooks. Likewise, as the 
beans become heated, they shrivel up until about half done, 
or at the “developing” point. At this stage, they begin to 
swell, and then “pop open,” increasing 50 percent in bulk. 
This is when the experienced roaster man turns on all the 
heat he can command, to finish the roasting as quickly as 
possible. The roast is considered done when the bean 
cracks easily between the fingers. Some roaster men use 
their teeth, others the palm of the hand and a coffee trier. 

“Dry” and “Wet” Roasts 

At frequent intervals, he thrusts his “trier”—an instru¬ 
ment shaped somewhat like an elongated spoon—into the 
cylinder, and takes out a sample of coffee to compare with 
his type sample. When the coffee is done, he shuts off the 
heat and checks the cooking by reducing the temperature of 
the coffee and of the cylinder as quickly as can be done. 
In the wet roast method he will spray the coffee, as the 
cylinder is still revolving, with three to four quarts of water 
to every 130 pounds of coffee. In the dry method he de¬ 
pends altogether upon his cooling apparatus. 

Roasters generally are not in favor of the excessive water¬ 
ing of coffee in and after the roasting process for the pur¬ 
pose of reducing shrinkage. “Heading” the coffee, or 
checking the roast before turning it out of the roasting 
cylinder, is quite another matter and is considered legitimate. 
Where coffees are watered in the cylinder at the close of 
the roast to reduce the shrinkage, it is possible to get back 
only about four percent of the shrinkage by such treatment, 


114 


COFFEE ROASTING 

and the practice is usually looked upon with disapproval by 
the best roasters. 

Generally speaking, water is turned into the roasting 
cylinder to quench the roast. The amount varies with the 
style of machine, whether gas or coal. Usually the water 
turns to steam, and the result is not an absorption of the 
water, but a momentary checking of the roast, with a 
tendency to swell and to brighten the coffee. This is, com¬ 
paratively speaking, a “dry roast,” but not an absolutely 
dry roast. It is doubtful if more than one percent of 
American coffee roasters employ an absolutely “dry” roast: 
it does not give satisfactory results. The word has been 
abused for advertising purposes. Of course, a dry roasted 
coffee is a better article for making a satisfactory beverage 
than one that has been soaked with water, but the word 
needs to be given a definite meaning. The real dry roast 
represents the coffee’s highest cup value. 

Finishing whole-bean roasted coffee by giving it a 
friction polish when it is still moist, using a glaze solution, 
or water only, is a practice not harmful if the proper solu¬ 
tions are employed. A machine comes for finishing or 
glazing. Coatings of sugar and eggs, glucose, mustard oil, 
and chicory are sometimes employed, but their use must be 
stated on the label. 

Coffee roasters are divided on this question of coffee 
coating. The best thought of the trade is undoubtedly 
opposed to the practice when it is done to conceal in¬ 
feriority or abnormally to reduce shrinkage. Some New 
York coffee roasters, who made a thorough investigation 
of the matter, found coating coffee with a wholesome ma¬ 
terial not injurious and the coated coffee better in the cup. 
Dr. Harvey W. Wiley found, in the celebrated Ohio case 
against Arbuckle Brothers, that coating coffee with sugar 
and eggs produced beneficial results, and that the coating 
preserved the bean. The Bureau of Chemistry has never 
issued any ruling on the subject of coating coffee. 


115 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

COST CARD FOR ROASTERS 


Showing the value added to the cost of green coffee by roasting. 
By A. C. Aborn 


Si 


5 

5% 

5% 

5 % 
5% 
5% 
5% 
57/8 

6 

6/8 

6/4 

6/8 

6/2 

6 % 

6/4 

67/8 

7 

7/8 

7/4 

7/8 

7/2 

7/8 

7/4 

77/8 

8 

8/8 

8/4 

8/8 

8/2 

8/8 

8/4 

87/8 

9 

9/8 

9/4 

9% 

9/2 

9% 

9/4 

97/8 


Basis: 


ts . 
O & 
« s 

o <u 

uo 


6.85 

6.99 

7.14 

7.29 

7.44 

7.59 

7.74 

7.89 

8.04 

8.19 

8.33 

8.48 

8.63 

8.78 

8.93 

9.08 

9.23 

9.37 

9.52 

9.67 

9.82 

9.97 

10.12 

10.27 

10.42 

10.57 

10.71 

10.86 

11.01 

11.16 

11.31 

11.46 

11.61 

11.76 

11.90 

12.05 

12.20 

12.35 

12.50 

12.65 


16 per cent shrinkage, %-cent 



'O . 

48* 

3^ 

t? -M 

s*-) 

. 

3^ 

O & 

t* <*> 

t5 £ 

§ § 

*♦>» "** 4 

0 s 

9 s 

** 

0<j 


uu 

ou 

10 

12.80 

15 

18.75 

1054 

12.95 

15% 

18.90 

10% 

13.10 

15/4 

19.05 

10 % 

13.24 

15% 

19.20 

10/2 

13.39 

15/ 

19.35 

10/8 

13.54 

15 % 

19.49 

10/4 

13.69 

15 % 

19.64 

107/8 

13.84 

157/g 

19.79 

11 

13.99 

16 

19.94 

11 % 

14.14 

16/s 

20.09 

11/4 

14.29 

16/4 

20.24 

11 X 

14.43 

16/s 

20.39 

11/ 

14.58 

16/ 

20.54 

u/ s 

14.73 

16/8 

20.68 

n/ 

14.88 

I6/4 

20.83 

117/8 

15.03 

167/8 

20.98 

12 

15.18 

17 

21.13 

12/8 

15.33 

17/8 

21.28 

12/4 

15.48 

1 7/4 

21.43 

12/8 

15.63 

17/8 

21.58 

12/2 

15.77 

17/2 

21.73 

12 H 

15.92 

17% 

21.87 

12/4 

16.07 

1 7/4 

22.02 

127/8 

16.22 

177/8 

22.17 

13 

16.37 

18 

22.32 

1356 

16.52 

18% 

22.47 

13 J4 

16.67 

18/4 

22.62 

13H 

16.82 

18/8 

22.77 

U/2 

16.97 

18/2 

22.92 

13% 

17.11 

18/8 

23.07 

13/4 

17.26 

18/4 

23.21 

137/8 

17.41 

187/8 

23.36 

14 

17.56 

19 

23.51 

14% 

17.71 

19/8 

23.66 

14/4 

17.86 

19/4 

23.81 

14/8 

18.01 

19/8 

23.96 

14/2 

18.15 

19/2 

24.11 

14/8 

18.30 

19 H- 

24.26 

14/4 

18.45 

19/4 

24.40 

147/8 

18.60 

197/8 

24.55 


a pound for roasting. 


.ti 

S*-4 

Sfc 

NS 1 . 

Jt 

1? 42 

►o’ 

£ * 

79 . 

.C 

3^ 

£0. 

t? «o 

t? g 

§ s 

§ * 

d g 

Ok K . 

uo 

OU 


VJ Vj 

UCj 

20 

24.70 

25 

30.65 

20 % 

24.85 

25% 

30.80 

2 O /4 

25.00 

25% 

30.95 

20 % 

25.15 

25% 

31.10 

20 % 

25.30 

25J4 

31.25 

20 % 

25.45 

25% 

31.40 

20/4 

25.60 

25% 

31.55 

207/s 

25.75 

257% 

31.70 

21 

25.89 

26 

31.85 

21/8 

26.04 

26% 

31.99 

21 A 

26.19 

26A 

32.14 

21 % 

26.34 

26% 

32.29 

21A 

26.49 

26% 

32.44 

21/8 

26.6 4 

26% 

32.59 

21/4 

26.79 

26% 

32.74 

217/8 

26.93 

267% 

32.89 

22 

27.08 

27 

33.04 

22 % 

27.23 

27% 

33.18 

22 A 

27.38 

27% 

33.33 

22 % 

27.53 

27% 

33.48 

22A 

27.68 

27/ 

33.63 

22 % 

27.83 

27% 

33.78 

22 % 

27.98 

27% 

33.93 

227% 

28.13 

2 77% 

34.08 

23 

28.27 

28 

34.23 

23% 

28.42 

28% 

34.38 

23% 

28.57 

28% 

34.52 

23% 

28.72 

28% 

34.67 

23% 

28.87 

28/2 

34.82 

23% 

29.02 

28% 

34.97 

23% 

29.17 

28& 

35.12 

237% 

29.32 

287% 

35.27 

24 

29.46 

29 

35.42 

24% 

29.61 

29% 

35.57 

24% 

29.76 

29A 

35.71 

24% 

29.91 

29% 

35.86 

24% 

30.06 

29% 

36.01 

24% 

30.21 

29% 

36.16 

24% 

30.36 

29% 

36.31 

247% 

30.51 

297% 

36.46 


116 


COFFEE ROASTING 


Cooling and Stoning 

The cooling and stoning operation which follows the 
roasting requires efficient apparatus. 

Generally speaking, the process is to dump the roast into 
a metal car having a perforated false bottom, to which is 
attached a powerful exhaust fan that sucks the heat out of 
the coffee. The stoner has for its function the removal of 
stones and other foreign matter which the green-coffee 
operations have failed to get rid of. Usually the coffee 
beans are carried up a pipe by a regulated air current which 
is strong enough to raise the coffee but not the stones, which 
remain at the bottom of the stoner boot, whence they are 
dumped at intervals into a pan underneath. 

Equipment 

For those about to engage in the coffee business, it is best 
to take counsel with the manufacturers of coffee-roasting 
machinery, of whom there are several old established con¬ 
cerns. Their names and addresses, as well as the names 
and addresses of makers of all other kinds of equipment 
and supplies needed for large or small plants, may be 
obtained by consulting the latest edition of Ukers’ Tea & 
Coffee Buyer’s Guide. 

Blending Roasted Coffee 

After cooling and stoning, unless it is to be polished or 
glazed, the coffee is ready for grinding and packing, if it 
has been blended in the green state. Otherwise, the next 
step will be to mix the different varieties before grinding, 
although some packers blend the different kinds after they 
have been ground. To mix whole-bean roasted coffee with¬ 
out hurting its appearance is rather difficult, and there is 
no regular machine for such work. 

A Trip Through a Coffee-Roasting Plant 

Perhaps a little journey through a small but altogether 
modern coffee-roasting plant is the best way to acquaint 


117 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


oneself with first-hand knowledge of how coffee is roasted. 
We have selected a typical New York plant, having many 
model features. 

Entering the ground floor, the receiving and shipping 
department, we notice the fine light and air characteristic 
of every floor in this house of sunlight and fresh air. En¬ 
tering with us are many bags of green coffee, unloaded 
from trucks at the door and ending long journeys ■ from 
distant lands. There are, for instance, a consignment of 
bales of real Arabian Mocha, in their original, oriental bind¬ 
ings which began their round-the-world trip on the back of 
a camel; Javas, genuine products of Java soil; old brown 
East Indies, with complexions like the swarthy natives, who 
picked and stored them; fine old-crop Bogotas, Bucaram- 
angas, Maracaibos, and adventurous bags escaped from 
bandit raids in Mexico; also coffees from Brazil, with high- 
grade district marks, and coffees from other parts of the 
world, the chosen of their kind, are here. Each of the 
coffees is a “survival of the fittest,” a champion, having 
won over its fellows in the testing room. 

Suppose we follow the coffee and go up with it on the 
electric elevator, running in a fire-proof well, with its 
automatic doors, safety devices, and smooth, quick action. 

Disembarking on the storage floor, (fourth), we walk 
over and watch the start of the green coffee for its course 
through the building. It is dumped into galvanized bins 
and taken by a bucket elevator to the floor above. Along 
one wall on this floor are the big, galvanized, dirt-proof, 
storage bins, the modern steel grinders turning out efficient 
granulations, and the pulverizers producing “stone-ground,” 
powdered coffee. We enter the stairway fire tower, go up 
one flight, and pass into the concrete, fire-proof roasting and 
milling room, the pride of the building. 

The clean, white walls, the lofty ceiling, with its great 
skylight, shedding a flood of sunlight upon the glistening, 
white-enameled, bricked roasters, the large windows, con- 


118 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Dumping the Roast in a Goal Roasting Plant 

The roasted coffee is being turned into the cooling car, equipped with a swinging “flex-arm” 
which keeps it always in connection with a suspended header pipe; the cooling being started 
as soon as the coffee leaves the roaster. The cooled coffee is tipped into a floor hopper. 


















COFFEE ROASTING 


tributing big drafts of fresh air, all make a picture which 
draws an admiring comment. The machinery is all run by 
electric power and up to the minute in every detail. You 
see how the green coffee, run up from the floor below, into 
the milling machine, is being cleaned by agitating sieves, 
friction brushes, and blown by fans. All particles of dirt, 
sticks, and foreign matter are removed, and the coffee made 
immaculate and ready for the roasting process, which is 
the cooking of the berry. 

Automatic conveyors take the coffee from the milling 
machine into the big roasting cylinders, holding 250 to 300 
pounds each, revolving over coal fires; for this is a coal- 
roasting plant. The roaster men, in the neat khaki uniform 
of the building, stand in front of the cylinders with a 
“trier,” a sort of open tube. With this they draw small 
samples of the coffee, which is tossing around within the 
cylinder and gradually assuming a brown shade as it is 
roasted. 

Each coffee requires special care, according to its charac¬ 
ter, and the roaster man skilfully governs his fire and times 
his roast accordingly. Carefully comparing the shade ot 
the roast with his standard sample, at the precisely right 
moment the cooler box, a perforated iron car, is rolled up on 
its track, the cylinder gate is opened, and the hot, delicately 
browned berries pour out. It is the dramatic moment in the 
roasting room, and the “roast is off.” Immediately the hot 
coffee meets a current of cool air supplied from electric 
fans through a large pipe. This pipe is a new type, mov¬ 
ing, with the car, upon an ingenious ball-and-socket joint, 
thus beginning the cooling process instantly. The new, 
quick control is an important point in producing a perfect 
roast. 

The car is rolled back, tips automatically, and the coffee 
is discharged into the stoner on the floor below, whence a 
strong current of air draws it up again, through a large 
pipe, into the roasting room. Small stones and weighty 

119 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


particles, being heavier than the coffee, are left behind, and 
any foreign substances which may have escaped previous 
processes are thus removed. Green coffee passes through 
various cleaning and sifting processes at the plantations, 
but the final cleaning and perfecting are done by the roasters 
with their modern and extensive equipment. 

Some interesting and curious things, suggestive of foreign 
life, are occasionally picked out by the machines; for 
instance, a small Spanish coin dropped by some native 
worker, or, as once occurred, a Mauser cartridge from the 
belt, perhaps, of a revolutionist. 

The roasted coffee, now on the roasting floor, is dropped 
into runabout iron cars which are rolled over the chutes. 
The cars open at the bottom and the coffee descends on its 
last lap into the shipping room, or packaging department, 
where it is ready for packing and shipping, having been 
turned into as perfect a product as the best human resources 
can make it. 

We leave the pleasant and efficient roasting room, realiz¬ 
ing how greatly modern machinery has improved the roast¬ 
ing process and made possible white walls and spotless 
floors, with dust and smoke eliminated by the modern, 
electric, suction ventilation. 

A few steps up through the fire tower and out on the roof 
show the numerous fire ladders, the huge chaff collector 
which collects all the chaff from the roasting coffee, and 
the spot reserved for a little roof garden for employees. 

Passing down two floors to the package department, we 
visit one of the most interesting and important parts of the 
building. 

Busy workers, the women in blue uniforms and white 
caps and the men in khaki, are working under bright, 
cheerful, and sanitary conditions. Near the windows, in 
front, is the printing department, with its electric-power 
press turning out labels, bags, circulars, at short notice and 
with creditable effect. 


120 


COFFEE ROASTING 


The coffee-packaging department is on the east side of 
the floor, where a long packing table is set under the auto¬ 
matic weighing machines receiving coffee from the chutes. 
At one end girls are making paper bags, also tinfoil-lined 
bags, a most efficient container for coffee. The bags are 
put upon a moving belt, filled under the weighers, carried 
along again on the belt, then folded, sealed, and packed 
in cases. Well known, favorite brands are moving rapidly 
along, every package representing cleanliness, purity, and 
sanitary ideals, the coffee untouched by human hands and 
protected from all contacts. 

After a glance at the dressing rooms and employee ac¬ 
commodations, we go downstairs to the floor below into the 
office and salesroom. There are few offices in New York 
so light and well ventilated. The whole front is a group 
of large windows which furnish fine daylight for the obser¬ 
vation of goods. Back of these are the round, sanitary- 
top, testing tables with smoking cups giving out fragrant 
odors. The shining brass kettles are singing merrily. Here 
is where the ultimate value, the drinking quality, is as¬ 
certained. Cup testing has always been a specialty of this 
firm, and unusually fine distinctions of flavor and character 
are considered on these tables. The goods are purchased 
by strict cup standards, and the drinking quality of ship¬ 
ments, as well as purchases, is repeatedly tested and con¬ 
firmed. The samples of coffee are ground by electric power, 
in a small mill. 

Before saying farewell, we again step down into the ship¬ 
ping room, which is a hum of activity. The gates in the 
galvanized chutes are opening and closing, and the fragrant, 
crisp, browned berries, fresh from the roasters above, milled 
and ' cleaned, having traveled automatically by gravity 
through the various processes, pour into drums, barrels, 
bags, etc. These are swung upon suspension scales, the 
most accurate type known. One man takes the weight, an¬ 
other checks it, the package is marked with a machine-cut 


121 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


stencil, and is finally ready for shipment. You look the 
second time at a busy and ingenious little truck or conveyor, 
which is run under platforms piled high with goods. The 
man steps upon a lever, the conveyor “humps its back,” 
and the whole load of 2,000 pounds, platform and all, in 
one unit, is easily moved along and gently deposited. The 
conveyor is slipped out and continues on for another load. 
This saving of movements, by handling bags in groups, 
instead of singly, is a principle of the “scientific manage¬ 
ment” of which every up-to-date factory management makes 
some study. 

As we pass out into the entrance way, we are invited to 
take a brief look into the water-proof basement, 
boiler rooms, and fire-proof passage connecting with the 
screened fire escape in the rear. A moment is spent in 
hearing of the fire-alarm system and fire drills. The little 
red box under a great gong, on each floor, almost thinks 
and acts for itself, announcing not only the fire, but its 
location, and also, if out ©f order, or not wound up, de¬ 
claring the fact. 

Every modern fire precaution safeguards the workers from 
fire as effectively as the light, air, and sanitary equipment 
safeguard their health and the purity of the goods turned 
out by this establishment. 

Evolution of Cofjee Roasting Apparatus 

Crude, burnt clay dishes and stone vessels were the first 
coffee roasters. In them the dried hulls and green beans 
were roasted over open fires about 1200 to 1300. 

Between 1400 and 1500, individual earthenware and 
metal coffee-roasting plates appeared. These were circular, 
four to six inches in diameter, about 1/16-inch thick, slightly 
concave, and pierced with small holes, something like the 
modern kitchen skimmer. They were used in Turkey and 
Persia for roasting a few beans at a time over braziers 
(open pans, or basins, for holding live coals). The braziers 


122 


COFFEE ROASTING 


were usually mounted on feet and bore very rich ornamenta¬ 
tion. 

The Turkish coffee grinder seems to have suggested the 
individual cylinder roaster which later (1650) became com¬ 
mon, and from which developed the huge, modern-cylinder, 
commercial roasting machines. 

Between 1500 and 1600, shallow iron dippers with long 
handles and foot rests, designed to stand in open fires, were 
used in Bagdad, and by the Arabs in Mesopotamia, for 
roasting coffee. These roasters had handles about 34 inches 
long, and the bowls were eight inches in diameter. They 
were accompanied by a metal stirrer (spatula) for turning 
the beans. 

Another type of roaster was developed about 1600. It 
was in the shape of an iron spider on legs, and was de¬ 
signed, like that just described, to sit in open fires. 

When La Roque speaks of his father bringing back to 
Marseilles from Constantinople in 1644 the instruments for 
making coffee, he undoubtedly refers to the individual de¬ 
vices which at that time in the Orient included the roaster 
plate, the cylinder grinder, the small, long-handled boiler, 
and jenjeyns ( findjans ), the little porcelain drinking cups. 

When Bernier visited Grand Cairo about the middle of 
the 17th century, in all the city’s thousand-odd coffee houses, 
he found but two persons who understood the art of roast¬ 
ing the bean. 

About 1650, there was developed the individual-cylinder 
coffee roaster made of metal, usually tinplate or tinned 
copper, suggested by the original Turkish pocket grinder. 
This was designed for use over open fires in braziers. 
There appeared about this time also a combined making- 
and-serving metal pot which was undoubtedly the original 
of the common type of pot that we know today. 

There appeared in England about 1660 Elford’s white 
iron machine (sheet iron coated with tin), which was 
“turned on a spit by a jack.” This was simply a larger 


123 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


size of the individual-cylinder roaster, and was designed 
for family or commercial use. Modifications were developed 
by the French and Dutch. In the 17th century, the Italians 
produced some beautiful designs in wrought-iron coffee 
roasters. 

Before the advent of the Elford machine, and, indeed, 
for two centuries thereafter, it was the common practice in 
the home to roast coffee in uncovered earthenware tart 
dishes, old pudding pans, and frying pans. Before the time 
of the modem kitchen stove, it was usually done over char¬ 
coal fires without flame. 

By combining the long-handle idea contained in the 
Bagdad roaster with that of the original cylinder roaster, 
the Dutch perfected a small, closed, sheet-iron, cylinder 
roaster with a long handle that permitted its being held and 
turned in open fireplaces. From 1670, and well into the 
middle of the 19th century, this type of family roaster en¬ 
joyed great favor in Holland, France, England, and the 
United States, more especially in the country districts. The 
museums of Europe and the United States contain many 
specimens. The iron cylinder measured about five inches 
in diameter, and was from six to eight inches long, being 
attached to a three- or four-foot iron rod provided with 
a wooden handle. The green coffee was put into the cyl¬ 
inder through a sliding door. Balancing the roaster over 
the blaze by resting the end of the iron rod projecting from 
the far end of the roasting cylinder in a hook of the usual 
fireplace crane, the housekeeper was wont slowly to revolve 
the cylinder until the beans had turned the proper color. 

Between 1700 and 1800, there was developed a type of 
small portable household stove to burn coke or charcoal, 
made of iron, and fitted with horizontal revolving cylinders 
for coffee roasting. These were provided with iron handles 
for turning. A modification of this type of roaster, under 
a three-sided hood, and standing on three legs, was designed 
to sit on the hearth of open fireplaces, close to the fire, or in 


124 


COFFEE ROASTING 


the smoldering ashes. Because of its greater capacity, it 
was probably used in the inns and coffee houses for roast¬ 
ing large batches. Still another type, which made its ap¬ 
pearance late in the 18th century, was the sheet-iron roaster 
suspended at the top of a tall, iron, boxlike compartment, 
or stove, in which the fire was built. This, too, was de¬ 
signed to roast coffee in comparatively large quantities. In 
some examples it was provided with legs. 

In 1704, Bull’s machine for roasting coffee was patented 
in England. This probably marks the first use of coal for 
commercial roasting. 

In 1710, the popular coffee roaster in French homes 
was a dish of varnished earthenware. 

French inventors continued to apply themselves to coffee- 
roasting and coffee-making problems, and many new ideas 
were evolved. Some of these were improved upon by the 
Dutch, the Germans, and the Italians; but the best work 
in the line of improvements that have survived the test 
of time was done by inventors in England and the United 
States. 

It was common practice to roast coffee in England in 
“an iron pan or in hollow cylinders made of sheet iron”; 
while in Italy the practice was to roast it in glass flasks, 
which were fitted with loose corks. The flasks were “held 
over clear fires of burning coals and continually agitated.” 
Anthony Schick, was granted an English patent in 1812, 
on a method, or process, for roasting coffee; but, as he 
never filed his specifications, we shall probably never know 
what the process was. The custom of the day in England 
was to pound the roasted beans in a mortar, or to grind them 
in a French mill. 

While French inventors were busy with coffee makers, 
English and American inventors were studying means to 
improve the roasting of the beans. Peregrine Williamson, 
of Baltimore, was granted the first patent in the United 
States for an improvement on a coffee roaster in 1820. In 


125 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


1824, Richard Evans was granted a patent in England 
for a commercial method of roasting coffee, comprising a 
cylindrical sheet-iron roaster fitted with improved flanges 
for mixing, a hollow tube and trier for sampling coffee 
while roasting, and a means for turning the roaster com¬ 
pletely over to empty it. 

In 1829, the fitablissements Lauzaune, Paris, began to 
make hand-turned, iron-cylinder machines for the roasting 
of coffee. 

The English began exporting coffee-roasting and coffee¬ 
grinding machinery to the United States in 1833-34. 

In 1840, Abel Stillman, Poland, New York, was granted 
a United States patent on a family coffee roaster having 
a mica window to enable the operator to observe the coffee 
while roasting. 

During the first half of the 19th century, the French 
were only toying with the roaster, because roasting in France 
was not yet a separate branch of business, as it had be¬ 
come in England and the United States, where keen minds 
were already at work on the purely commercial coffee-roast¬ 
ing machine. The application of intensive thought in this 
direction was destined to bear fruit in America in 1846, 
and in England in 1847. 

James W. Carter, of Boston, was granted a United States 
patent in 1846 on his “pull-out” roaster; and this was the 
machine most generally employed for trade roasting in 
America for the next 20 years. Carter did not claim to 
have invented the combination of cylindrical roaster and 
furnace; but he did claim priority for the combination, with 
the furnace and roasting vessel, of the air space, or chamber, 
surrounding it, “the same being for the purpose of prevent¬ 
ing the too rapid escape of heat from the furnace when 
the air chamber’s induction and eduction air openings or 
passages are closed.” 

The Carter “pull-out” was so called because the roast¬ 
ing cylinder of sheet iron was pulled out from the furnace 


126 


COFFEE ROASTING 


on a shaft supported by standards, to be emptied or to be 
refilled from sliding doors in its “sides.” It was in use for 
many years in such oldtime plants as that of the Dwinell- 
Wright Company, 25 Harberhill Street, Boston; by James 
H. Forbes and William Schotten, in St. Louis; and by D. 
Y. Harrison, in Cincinnati. 

In 1847-48, William and Elizabeth Dakin were granted 
patents in England on an apparatus for “cleaning and roast¬ 
ing coffee and for making decoctions.” The roaster specifi¬ 
cation covered a gold, silver, platinum, or alloy-lined roast¬ 
ing cylinder and traversing carriage on an overhead railway 
to move the roaster in and out of the roasting oven; and 
the “decoction” specification covered an arrangement for 
twisting a cloth-bag ground-coffee container in a coffee big¬ 
gin, or applied a screw motion to a disk within a perforated 
cylinder containing the ground coffee, so as to squeeze the 
liquid out of the grounds after infusion had taken place. 

The roaster has survived, but the coffee maker was not 
so fortunate. The Dakin idea was that coffee was injuri¬ 
ously affected by coming into contact with iron during the 
roasting process. The roasting cylinder was inclosed in 
an oven instead of being directly exposed to the furnace 
heat. The apparatus was provided also with a “taster,” 
or sampler, the first of its kind, to enable the operator to 
examine the roasting berries without stopping the machine. 

In 1849, Thomas R. Wood, of Cincinnati, was granted a 
United States patent on a spherical coffee roaster for use 
on kitchen stoves. It attained considerable popularity 
among housewives who preferred to do their own roasting. 

In 1852, Edward Gee secured a patent in England on 
a coffee roaster fitted with inclined flanges for turning the 
beans while roasting. 

In 1862, E. J. Hyde, of Philadelphia, was granted a 
United States patent on a combined coffee roaster and stove, 
fitted with a crane on which the roasting cylinder was re¬ 
volved and swung out horizontally for emptying and re- 


127 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


filling. It was a commercial success. Benedickt Fischer 
used one in his first roasting plant in New York. It is still 
manufactured by the Bramhall Deane Company, of New 
York. 

In 1864, Jabez Bums, of New York, was granted a 
United States patent on the original Burns coffee roaster, 
the first machine which did not have to be moved away from 
the fire for discharging the roasted coffee, and one that 
marked a distinct advance in the manufacture of coffee- 
roasting apparatus. It was a closed iron cylinder set in 
brickwork. 

Until the Burns roaster appeared, coffee roasters were 
usually cylinders that revolved upon an axis; the other de¬ 
vices that were tried were not successful. 

Jabez Burns patented an improved form of his roaster 
in 1881, and a sample coffee roaster in 1883, before he 
died in 1888; and since that time his sons, who continue 
the business, have perfected a number of improvements and 
brought out new machines. 

Thomas Page, a New York millwright, began the manu¬ 
facture of a pull-out coffee roaster similar to the old Carter 
machine, in 1868. Later, Chris Abele, who was foreman 
in the Page shop, succeeded to the business, and in 1882 
he was granted a United States patent on an improvement 
on a coffee roaster similar to the original Bums machine 
(the patent had then expired), which he marketed under 
the name of Knickerbocker. 

In the 1860s, ’70s, and 80s, French, English, and Dutch 
inventors began producing gas coffee roasters, some of which 
were brought to America. For the complete story of their 
evolution and the evolution of other apparatus, the reader 
is referred to All About Coffee. 

The first direct-flame gas coffee roaster in America was 
installed in the plant of the Potter-Parlin Company, New 
York, by F. T. Holmes, in 1893. This was Tupholme’s 
machine, patented in England in 1887, and in the United 


128 


COFFEE ROASTING 


States in 1896-97. The Potter-Parlin Company subse¬ 
quently placed the Tupholme machines throughout the 
United States on a daily rental basis, limiting the leases 
to one firm in a city, having obtained the exclusive Ameri¬ 
can rights from the Waygood, Tupholme Company, now the 
Grocers Engineering & Whitmee, Ltd. 

In 1897, a special gas burner, not to be confused with 
the direct-flame machine, was first attached to a regular 
Burns roaster in the United States, and was made the basis 
of application for a patent. The Burns direct-flame gas 
roaster, with patented swing-gate head for feeding and dis¬ 
charging, was introduced to the trade in 1900. The Burns 
gas sample roaster followed. 

In 1901, Joseph Lambert, of Marshall, Michigan, intro¬ 
duced to the trade one of the earliest indirect gas roasting 
machines. 

In the same year, 1901, F. T. Holmes, formerly with the 
Potter-Parlin Company, joined the Huntley Manufacturing 
Company, Silver Creek, New York, which then began to 
build the Monitor direct-flame gas coffee roaster. 

In 1915, and again in 1919, Jabez Burns & Sons, New 
York, patented their Jubilee roaster, an inner-heated ma¬ 
chine in which the gas is burned inside a revolving cylinder 
in a combustion chamber protected from direct coffee con¬ 
tact. The heat is deflected downward and then passes up¬ 
ward through the coffee. 

In 1897, Joseph Lambert, of Vermont, began the manu¬ 
facture and sale at Battle Creek, Michigan, of the Lambert 
self-contained coffee roaster without the brick setting then 
required for coffee-roasting machines. In 1900, he was 
joined by A. P. Grohens. In 1901, the Lambert Food & 
Machinery Company was organized. In 1904, the com¬ 
pany was reorganized. Since then, many improvements have 
been made under Mr. Grohens’ direction. The Lambert 
gas roaster, one of the first machines employing gas as fuel 
for indirect roasting, dates back to 1901, as mentioned. The 


129 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


Economic roaster is Mr. Grohens’ latest development for 
coal or coke fuel. It is a compact, self-contained equipment, 
operating in connection with a new-type rotary cooler. He 
has also recently brought out a gas-fired, electrically oper¬ 
ated, 600-pound Victory roaster and a 50-pound miniature 
coffee-roasting plant designed for retail stores. 

In 1903, John Arbuckle was granted a United States 
patent on a coffee-roasting apparatus employing a fan to 
force the hot-fire gases into the roasting cylinder. From 
this was developed the Jumbo roaster, now used in the Ar¬ 
buckle plant, which roasts 10,000 pounds an hour. 



130 


CHAPTER XII 


COFFEE GRINDING 

“Steel-cut” coffee—Wholesale coffee grinding — 
Evolution of grinding apparatus. 

U NLESS the coffee is to be sold in the bean, it is sent 
to the grinding and packing department, to be further 
prepared for the consumer. Since the federal Food 
Law has been in effect, the public has gained confidence in 
ground and bean coffee in packages; and today a large part 
of the coffee consumed in the United States is sold in one- 
and two-pound cartons and cans, already blended and ready 
for brewing. 


“Steel-Cut” Coffee 

A progressive coffee-packing house may have three dif¬ 
ferent styles of grinding machines; one called the granulator 
for turning out the so-called “steel-cut” coffee; the second, 
a pulverizer for making a really fine grind; and the third, 
a grinding mill for general factory work and producing a 
medium-ground coffee. 

Commercial coffee-grinding machines are alike in prin¬ 
ciple in all countries, the beans being crushed or broken 
between toothed or corrugated metal or stone members, one 
revolving and the other being stationary. While all grinding 
machines are alike in principle, they may vary in capacity 
and design. The average granulator will turn out about 
500 pounds of “steel-cut” coffee in an hour; the pulverizer, 
75 to 100 pounds; and the average grinding mill, 500 to 
600 pounds. Some types of grinding machines have chaff- 
removing attachments to extract, by air suction, the chaff 
from the coffee as it is being ground. 


131 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


A large number of trade terms for designating different 
grinds of coffee are used in the United States, some of them 
meaning the same thing, while similar names are sometimes 
contradictory. A canvass of the leading American coffee 
packers in 1917 discovered that there were 15 terms in use, 
and that there were 34 different meanings attached to them. 
For the term “fine,” there were five different definitions; 
“medium” had five; “coarse,” seven; “pulverized,” four; 
“steel-cut,” seven; “ground,” two; “powdered,” one; “per¬ 
colator,” two; “steel-cut-chaff-removed,” one; “Turkish 
ground,” one; while “granulated,” “Greek ground,” “extra 
fine,” “standard,” and “regular” were not defined. 

The term “steel-cut” is generally understood to mean that 
in the grinding process the chaff has been removed and an 
approximate uniformity of granules has been obtained by 
sifting. The term does not necessarily mean that the grind¬ 
ing mills have steel burrs. In fact, most firms employ burrs 
made of case iron or of a composition metal known as “burr 
metal,” because of its combined hardness and toughness. 

The “steel-cut” idea is another of those sophistries for 
which American advertising methods have been largely re¬ 
sponsible in the development of the package-coffee business 
in the United States. The term “steel-cut” lost all its value 
as an advertising catchword for the original user when 
every other dealer began to use it, no matter how the 
ground coffee was produced. When the public has been 
taught that coffee should be “steel-cut,” it is hard to sell it 
ground coffee unless it is called “steel-cut”; although a 
truer instructor of the consumer would have caused him to 
insist on buying whole bean coffee to be ground at home. 

“Steel-cut” coffee — that is, a medium-ground coffee with 
the chaff blown out—does not compare in cup test with 
coffee that has been more scientifically ground and not given 
the chaff-removal treatment that is largely associated in the 
public mind with the idea of the “steel-cut” process. 

According to the results of the trade canvass previously 


132 


COFFEE GRINDING 


referred to, it would appear that the terms most suited to 
convey the right idea of the different grades of grinding, 
and likely to be acceptable to the greatest number, would be 
“coarse” (for boiling and including all the coarser grades); 
“medium” (for coffee made in the ordinary pot, including 
the so-called “steel-cut”); “fine” (like granulated sugar, 
and used for percolators); “very fine” (like commeal, and 
used for drip or filtration methods); “powdered” (like flour, 
and used for Turkish coffee). 

Coffee begins to lose its strength immediately after roast¬ 
ing, the rate of loss increasing rapidly after grinding. In 
a test carried out by a Michigan coffee packer, it was dis¬ 
covered that a mixture of a very fine with a coarse grind 
gave the best results in the cup. It was also determined 
that coarse-ground coffee lost its strength more rapidly than 
the medium ground; while the latter deteriorated more 
quickly than a fine ground; and so on, down the scale. His 
conclusions were that the most satisfactory grind for put¬ 
ting into packages that were likely to stand for some time 
before being consumed was a mixture consisting of about 
90 percent finely ground coffee and 10 percent coarse. His 
theory is that the fine grind supplies sufficiently high body 
extraction; the coarse, the needful flavor and aroma. On 
this irregular grind a United States patent (No. 14,520) 
has been granted, in which the inventor claims that the 90 
percent of fine eliminates the interstices—that allow too free 
ventilation in a coarse ground coffee—and consequently 
prevents the loss of the highly volatile constituents of the 
10 percent of coarse-ground particles, and at the same time 
gives a full-body extraction. 

Wholesale Coffee Grinding 

As long as there continues a consumer demand for ground 
package coffee, there will be found manufacturers willing 
to supply it, despite all the well-turned arguments in favor 
of grinding at home or in the shop at the time of purchase. 


133 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


There are to be had factory mills in which coffee may be 
reduced to the desired fineness at one passage through a 
pair of metal-disk grinding plates, which are capable of 
producing 500 pounds an hour of finely ground coffee such 
as will pass completely through a square-mesh sieve having 
3/64-inch clear openings. These mills can be made to 
produce as much as 1,000 to 1,500 pounds of finely ground 
coffee an hour. 

For retail distributers there are many excellent counter 
mills that render efficient service in grinding whole-bean 
loose or package coffee for the housewife while she waits. 

Evolution of Grinding Apparatus 

In the beginning,—that is to say, in Ethiopia, about 800 
A. D.,—a primitive stone mortar and pestle were the original 
coffee grinder. Next, the coffee beans were ground between 
little millstones, one turning above the other; then came the 
mill used by the Greeks and Romans for grain. This mill 
consisted of two conical millstones, one hollow and fitted 
over the other, specimens of which have been found in 
Pompeii. The idea is the same as that employed in the 
most modem metal grinder. 

In the 15 th century, we notice the first appearance of the 
familiar Turkish pocket-cylinder coffee mill. The Turkish 
coffee grinder seems to have suggested the individual- 
cylinder roaster which later (1650) became common, and 
from which developed the huge, modem, cylinder commer¬ 
cial roasting machines. 

Between 1428 and 1448, a spice grinder standing on four 
legs was invented, and this was later used for grinding cof¬ 
fee. The drawer to receive the ground coffee was added in 
the 18th century. 

Between 1600 and 1632, mortars and pestles of wood, 
iron, brass, and bronze came into common use in Europe 
for braying the roasted beans. For several centuries, coffee 
connoisseurs held that pounding the beans in a mortar was 


134 



COFFEE GRINDING 


superior to grinding in the most efficient mill. Peregrine 
White’s parents brought to America on the Mayflower, in 
1620, a wooden mortar and pestle that were used for bray¬ 
ing coffee to make coffee “powder.” 

The improved Turkish combination coffee grinder with 
folding handle and cup receptacle for the beans, used for 
grinding, boiling, and drinking, was first made in Damascus 
in 1665. 

In 1665, Nicholas Book, “living at the Sign of the Frying 
Pan in St. Tulies Street,” London, advertised that he was 
“the only known man for making of mills for grinding of 
coffee powder, which mills are sold by him from 40 to 45 
shillings the mill.” 

Coffee grinders were so common in France in 1720 that 
they were to be had for $1.25 each. Their development by 
the French had been rapid from the original spice grinder. 
At first, they were known as coffee mills; but in the 18th 
century, roasters came to be known by that name. They 
were made of iron, retaining the same principle of the 
horizontal millstones—one of which is fixed while the other 
moves—that the ancients employed for grinding wheat. 
They were squat, box-shaped affairs, having in the center a 
shank of iron that revolved upon a fixed, corrugated iron 
plate. There was also the style that fastened to the wall. 
At first, the drawer to receive ground coffee was missing, 
but this was supplied in later types. Before its invention, 
the ground coffee was received in a sack of greased leather, 
or in one treated on the outside with beeswax—probably the 
original of the duplex paper bag for conserving the flavor. 

The French brought their innate artistic talents to bear 
upon coffee grinders, just as they did upon roasters and 
serving pots. In many instances, they made the outer parts 
of silver and of gold. 

English and American inventors soon afterward produced 
the well-known wall-mill type of coffee grinder. The origi¬ 
nal Parker mill appeared in 1832. Jabez Bums secured a 

135 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


patent on his granulating mill in 1872. Mr. Burns had 
some very definite ideas on the subject of grinding coffee, 
as well as on how the product should be roasted. At that 
time the French and English lap and wall mills, the English 
steel mills, and the Swift mills were all used in the United 
States. Troemner’s, the Enterprise, and others were ex¬ 
tending their use in a retail way; but Jabez Bums confined 
his attention to a practicable mill for wholesale grinding 
establishments. 

For manufacturing purposes, burr-stone mills were for 
many years exclusively employed, especially one first known 
as the Prentiss & Page, and later as the Page mill. There 
was a time when all coffee establishments in New York sent 
their coffee to Prentiss & Page to be ground. Some of the 
places roasted by hand, others by horse power; and, if by 
steam, it was limited, and they did not have enough to spare 
for grinding. 

With the march of improvement, burr-stone mills went 
into the discard. The difficulty lay in finding men expe¬ 
rienced in stone dressing to run them; and the demand grew 
for a better style of grinding than could be done in a mill 
out of face and balance. This demand was met in an alto¬ 
gether different style of machine, which for 25 years was 
well known as the Barbor mill. It was for improvements 
on this mill that Jabez Bums in 1867, 1872, and 1874 
obtained his granulator patents. 

The mill comprised cutters in the form of an iron roller 
running in near contact with a concave, also of iron, and a 
revolving cylinder provided with sieves, or screens, that 
received the ground material, rolled it over the wire surface, 
sifting out the fine and discharging the course automatically 
into the cutter, to be again manipulated until it was fine 
enough to pass through the meshes of the screen. 

In 1875-76-78, Turner Strowbridge, of New Brighton, 
Pennsylvania, was granted three United States patents on a 
box coffee mill. 


136 


COFFEE GRINDING 


In 1878, Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain, Connecti¬ 
cut, brought out an improved box coffee grinder for home 
use. , 

In 1878 and 1880, United States patents were issued to 
John C. Dell, of Philadelphia, on a store coffee mill. 

In 1879 and 1880, United States patents were issued to 
Orson W. Stowe, of the Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Company, 
Southington, Connecticut, on a household coffee mill. 

In 1881, the Morgan Brothers, Edgar H. and Charles, 
began the manufacture of household coffee mills, the business 
being acquired in 1885 by the Arcade Manufacturing Com¬ 
pany, of Freeport, Illinois. The latter concern brought out 
the first pound coffee mill in 1889. Its mills became very 
popular in the United States. In 1900, Charles Morgan 
was granted a United States patent on a glass-jar coffee mill, 
with removable glass measuring cup. 

In 1897, the Enterprise Manufacturing Company, of 
Pennsylvania, was the first regularly to employ electric 
motors for driving commercial coffee mills by means of 
belt-and-pulley attachments. 

In 1898, the Hobart Manufacturing Company, of Troy, 
Ohio, introduced to the trade another early coffee grinder 
connected with an electric motor and driven by belt-and- 
pulley attachment. 

In 1900, the first gear-driven electric coffee grinder was 
put on the market by the Enterprise Manufacturing Com¬ 
pany, of Pennsylvania. 

In 1902, the Coles Manufacturing Company (Braun 
Company, successor) and Henry Troemner, of Philadelphia, 
began the manufacture and sale of gear-driven electric 
coffee grinders. 

In 1905, the A. J. Deer Company, Buffalo, New York 
(now at Homell, New York), began to sell its Royal electric 
coffee mills direct to dealers on the instalment plan, revo¬ 
lutionizing the former practice of selling coffee mills through 
hardware jobbers. 


137 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


In 1905, H. L. Johnston was granted a United States 
patent on a coffee mill. He assigned the patent to the 
Hobart Manufacturing Company. 

In 1905, a celebrated case was decided in Kansas City 
involving litigation between William E. Baker, of Baker & 
Company, Minneapolis, and the F. A. Duncombe Manu¬ 
facturing Company, of St. Joseph, Missouri, over Mr. 
Baker’s patent rights in a machine to produce steel-cut cof¬ 
fee. The suit was brought in 1903, and Mr. Baker con¬ 
tended that his patent gave him the exclusive right to the 
“uniformity of granules by means of the sharply dressed 
mechanism” and by the use of a fan for blowing away the 
silver skins, produced by his machine; while the defendant 
said he obtained the same result (steel-cut coffee) by grad¬ 
ing the granules through screens or sieves. The defense 
was that Mr. Baker’s process was not a discovery; because, 
grinding coffee was as old as the world’s knowledge, and 
winnowing the chaff was equally ancient. The lower court 
dismissed the bill, because the “patents sued upon are de¬ 
void of patentable invention,” and the United States Court 
of Appeals confirmed the decision. 

Herbert L. Johnston, assignor to the Hobart Electric 
Manufacturing Company, Troy, Ohio, was granted a United 
States patent on a machine for refining coffee in 1913. 

In 1915, the National Coffee Roasters Association’s 
Home coffee mill, employing an improved set screw operat¬ 
ing on a cog-and-ratchet principle, was introduced to the 
trade. 

In 1916, Jules Le Page, Darlington, Indiana, obtained 
two United States patents on cutting rolls to cut—and not 
to grind or crush—com, wheat, or coffee. These were sub¬ 
sequently incorporated in the Ideal steel-cut coffee mill and 
marketed to the trade first by the B. F. Gump Company, 
Chicago, and later through Jabez Bums & Sons, New York. 


138 






COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Some of the Leading Trade-Marked Coffee Containers 

1. Double carton. 2-3. Cartons. 4. Fiber sides, tin top and bottom, 
friction cover. 5. Vacuum tin can. 6. Fancy paper bag. 7. Machine- 
wrapped paper package. 8. Fancy paper bag. 9. Carton with 
patented opening and closing device. 10. Wrapped paper pack¬ 
age. 11. Tin can with slip cover. 12. All-fiber can with slip cover. 
13. Tin can with slip cover. 14. Lithographed tin can with friction 
cover. 15-16. Tin cans with slip covers. 17. Squat tin cans. 18. 
Napacan. 19-20-21. Vacuum tin cans. 














CHAPTER XIII 


SELLING ROASTED COFFEE AT 
WHOLESALE 

How coffees are sold at wholesale — The wholesale 
salesman’s place in merchandising — Ten things every 
master salesman should know — Profit sharing for 
salesmen — Some coffee costs analyzed — Common 
sense in cost finding—Terms and credits — About 
package coffees — Coffee-selling chart — Various 
types of coffee containers — Labels — Coffee-pack¬ 
aging economies — Practical grocer helps — Coffee 
sampling — Premium method of sales promotion. 

I N the United States in 1923, some 1,500 coffee roasters 
and 4,000 wholesale grocers were engaged in the business 
of selling roasted coffee in a wholesale way. A number 
of these also sold green coffee to retail distributers who did 
their own roasting. 

Most of the roasted coffee sold is ground, although in 
some parts of the United States there is a growing consumer 
demand for coffee in the bean. Of the coffee sold in trade- 
marked packages in 1919 in the United States, about 75 
percent was ground ready for brewing. 

The larger wholesale houses generally confine their opera¬ 
tions to the section of the country in which they are located, 
but some of the biggest coffee-packing firms seek national 
distribution. In both cases, branch houses are usually 
established at strategic points to facilitate the serving of 
retail customers with freshly roasted coffee at all times 
necessary. 

In recent years, too, it has become a general practice for 
the home offices, or main headquarters, to advertise their 
product in magazines, newspapers, street cars, and by mail 
and on billboards; while the branches solicit trade in their 


139 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


territories by means of traveling salesmen, local newspaper 
advertisements, booklets, circulars, and demonstrations at 
food shows. 

The Wholesale Salesman 

The traveling salesman is probably the most effective 
agency in securing the retailer’s orders for coffee. A good 
coffee salesman not only sells coffee, but he teaches his 
customer how he can best build up and hold his coffee trade. 
He acquaints the retailer with all the talking points about 
the coffee he handles, how to feature it in store displays and 
advertisements, how to stage demonstrations and to work up 
special sales. 

If he is a good salesman, he does not permit the merchant 
to buy more coffee than he can dispose of when it is still 
fresh, and he shows the dealer the folly of handling too 
many brands of package coffees. If he sells coffee in bulk, 
the efficient salesman has also a sound working knowledge 
of blending principles, and is able to suggest the kinds of 
coffee to blend to suit the particular requirements of each 
grocer’s trade. In short, he takes an intelligent interest in 
his customer’s business, and cooperates with him in building 
up a local coffee trade. 

In order to become a master salesman in any line of 
business, here are 10 things which it is essential salesmen 
should know: 

1. He Should Know Himself. Happy is that man who has 
found himself, who is “onto” himself, who appreciates himself 
at his true worth, neither more nor less, and who, having discovered 
himself and his right relation to society, resolves to be true to him¬ 
self. “To thine ownself be true, and it must follow, as the night 
the day, thou canst not then be false to any man.” The master 
salesman is the man who has found -the secret of all salesmanship, 
and that is sincerity, also the -basis of true character, without which 
there can never be a master salesman. 

2. He Should Know Human Nature. The poet has said, 
“The proper study of mankind is man.” Know your fellows. So 
shall you become more tolerant, and tolerance helps you to learn 


140 


SELLING ROASTED COFFEE AT WHOLESALE 


patience, another of life’s most important lessons. Knowing hu¬ 
man nature comprehends a study of its weaknesses as well as its 
strength. All kinds of people go to make up the world of your 
prospects. Try to understand their little frailties and learn how 
to turn their psychology to their own, and incidentally to your, 
advantage. But never take an unfair advantage. Always be the 
gentleman. If you can’t afford to be a gentleman, you have no 
right to be a salesman. Keep your head high and your voice low. 
Every merchant is your friend, or will be when he knows you. 
Treat him as such. 

3. He Should Know That He Is First of All a Soldier 
in the Army for the Common Good, and that as such he has a 
duty to perform in rendering a real social service to his customers. 
He needs to get the thought that it isn’t a package of goods that 
he is selling, but something bigger and better, and that is an op¬ 
portunity. It is his good fortune, by means of the sale, to open 
wide the door that will lead his customer to greater efficiency, to 
success and happiness. 

4. He Should Know His Goods. Let no detail, however 

small, escape you. Get full of your subject. This is the one safe 
dissipation for every salesman. Get intoxicated with your line. 
We sometimes say of the successful salesman, as of the genius, 
“He’s a crazy Indian.” There is more truth here than we are 

wont to recognize; only he is not crazy, he’s just plain drunk, 

drunk with enthusiasm for his line. He is literally full of it, and 
that’s the only way to impart knowledge of any subject to others,— 
first get filled with it yourself. So, find out all you can about your 
goods. Be a walking encyclopedia on the subject. 

5. He Should Know the Laws of Approach. There is 

valuable psychology in the right salesman attitude. Always be 
agreeable, but not effusive. Don’t argue; never lose your temper. 

Anyhow, the customer is always right; you know that because 

George Boldt proved it years ago in the success he achieved by 
building the Waldorf-Astoria on the dictum. 

6. He Should Know How to Tell His Story Simply, 
Truthfully. There is an art in “getting it across.” The me¬ 
chanics of it are not hard to learn. They are based upon a 
recognition of the four laws which govern every sale,—Attention, 
Interest, Need, and Closing the Sale. It is important not to be¬ 
come involved in these laws, or to overemphasize any one of them. 
There is a time to listen and a time to stop. 

7. He Should Know His Prospect. Put yourself into his 


141 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


place. Get his viewpoint. Familiarize yourself with his prob¬ 
lems. Be ready with helpful suggestions for their solution. Al¬ 
ways talk your prospect’s business. The proposition should ever 
be, “How can I help you ?—how this line will help you , save you 
money.” 

8. He Should Know How to Make His Prospect a Satis¬ 
fied -Customer. To do this don’t sell him something he doesn’t 
need, or isn’t ready for or doesn’t want, and don’t oversell him ; 
but, having sold him, make good on all your promises. Make the 
sale fool proof. Follow it through. 

9. He Should Know How to Render Service. The trans¬ 
action isn’t over with the delivery of the goods. For the master 
salesman this is only a beginning, the starting of an endless chain 
of goodwill. There are helpful follow-up calls to be made, friendly 
counsel to be given, a sincere interest to be taken in the merchant’s 
welfare, and this leads naturally into: 

10. He Should Know How to Make His Customer a 
Goodwill Agent. A continued lively interest in the merchant 
not only holds his trade and keeps him satisfied, but it soon trans¬ 
forms him into a hard and fast booster for your line. Then the 
master salesman does not need to be told how to capitalize a 
grateful customer. The customer himself will show him! 

Profit Sharing for Salesmen 

In a report made by the Bureau of Business Research of 
New York University to the National Coffee Roasters Asso¬ 
ciation, the results were given of a comprehensive ques¬ 
tionary, answered by 76 leading coffee roasters, and it was 
recommended that commissions on net profits were the best 
method of paying salesmen, with the addition of special 
bonuses and prizes, charging them with 50 percent of the 
loss on their accounts. 1 

Some Coffee Costs Analyzed 

In estimating the price at which he must sell his coffee 
to make a fair profit, the wholesale coffee merchant has 
many items of expense to consider. To the cost of the green 
coffee he must add the cost of transportation to his plant; 

1 Tea & Coffee Trade Journal, Sept., 1922, p. 357. 


142 



SELLING ROASTED COFFEE AT WHOLESALE 


the loss in shrinkage in roasting, which averages about 
16 percent; packaging costs, if he is a packer; the items of 
expense in doing business, such as wages and salaries, ad¬ 
vertising, buying and selling, freight, express, warehouse 
and cartage, postage and office supplies, telephone and tele¬ 
graph, credit and collection; and the fixed overhead charges 
for interest, heat, light, power, insurance, taxes, repairs, 
equipment, depreciation, losses from bad debts, and miscel¬ 
laneous items. The average loss for bad debts among 
grocers in 1916 was 0.03 percent of the total sales, accord¬ 
ing to the director of business research, Harvard University, 
who estimated also that the common figure for credit and 
collection expense was 0.06 percent. The total cost of doing 
business has been estimated as ranging between 12 and 20 
percent of the total annual sales; so that a bag of green 
coffee costing $16 in New York or New Orleans costs the 
coffee packer in the Middle West $22.33 to $24.56, accord¬ 
ing to the expense of carrying on his business. 

Common Sense in Cost Finding 

A special study 1 of the statistical requirement of the coffee 
trade disclosed that roasters were prone to regard themselves 
as merchandising rather than manufacturing establishments, 
and many of them are neither one nor the other but a com¬ 
bination of the two. The statistical requirements of the 
wholesaler are comparatively simple, comprising largely a 
knowledge of the unit costs of warehousing, shipping, and 
distributing—all of which are frequently expressed as per¬ 
centages to sales. As a concern departs from purely mer¬ 
chandising activities, however, its statistical needs increase; 
not only because of the necessity for knowing the unit costs 
of processing, but also because the manufacturers’ selling 
conditions are likely to be more complicated than those of 
the jobber. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the effect of un- 

1 T. M. Harrison; Tea & Coffee Trade Journal, April-June, 1923. 


143 



COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


intelligent competition. A quotes a price; B quotes a lower 
price, because he needs the business badly; C quotes a still 
lower price, on the theory that he is a better trader than B; 
finally, A makes a still lower quotation, because he thinks 
that there must have been something wrong in his original 
figure. It is a vicious circle. The result is to debase prices, 
and to bring about a condition of affairs that can be cor¬ 
rected only by increased knowledge of cost. 

The expenditures in the coffee trade may be classified in 
four major groups. The relative volume of outgo in these 
groups will vary in accordance with the commodities han¬ 
dled, the styles of packaging used, and the methods of dis¬ 
tribution. In order that we get a broad picture of the 
problem, the various elements may be alined as exhibited in 
the following tabulation. These percentages may be ac¬ 
cepted as reflecting more or less closely those which might 
obtain in a house that is producing a wide line and selling 
to two or more classes of trade: 

Raw materials . 50% to 60% of outgo. 

Packing materials . 10% to 20% of outgo. 

Manufacturing costs. 5% to 15% of outgo. 

Commercial and selling expenses. 10% to 25% of outgo. 

In cost finding, it is necessary to reduce all classes of out¬ 
go to unit bases, in elements that may be compiled as incre¬ 
ments of the final cost of each product. In some items of 
expenditure, the unit will apply to only a single product; 
in others, it will apply equally to a class of products and 
in some cases to all products. 

In considering the four major classifications of outgo 
enumerated, it will be noted that the unit cost of “raw ma¬ 
terials” and “packaging materials” may ordinarily be identi¬ 
fied with individual products very readily, and hence offer 
comparatively little difficulty from a cost-finding standpoint. 
It is when we come to the numerous items of “manufactur¬ 
ing costs” and “commercial and selling expenses” that the 


144 






SELLING ROASTED COFFEE AT WHOLESALE 


cost-finding difficulty arises. The vital statistical need of 
this industry is for closer knowledge of the unit costs of 
doing business, especially in these elements. 

An operating-analysis book is recommended to those roast¬ 
ers who wish to install a system of uniform accounting. 
The plan provides for classifying the expenses. The in¬ 
formation thus obtained may be utilized in building up the 
cost of individual products. 

Wholesale coffee trade contract terms and credits are not 
dissimilar from those in other lines of commerce. The 
wholesaler helps the retailer finance his business to the ex¬ 
tent of granting him 30 to 60 days in which to pay his bill, 
offering him a cash discount if the invoice is paid within 
10 days of date of sale. Until recent years, these terms 
were frequently abused, the customer demanding much 
longer credits, and often taking a 10-day cash discount after 
30 or more days had elapsed. This abuse was particu¬ 
larly prevalent from 1907 to 1913, when coffee prices were 
low and competition was especially keen. In addition, the 
retailers often demanded special deliveries of supplies, which 
added to the wholesalers’ costs, and some retailers refused 
to pay the cost of cartage from the cars to their stores. 

With the coming of high prices after the close of the 
World War, the wholesalers showed a tendency to tighten 
up their credit and discount terms, the National Coffee 
Roasters Association especially recommending 30 days’ 
credit, or at most 60 days, and a maximum cash discount 
rate of two percent. 

Another trade abuse which has been corrected almost al¬ 
together was the practice of “selling coffee to be billed as 
shipped”; that is, the wholesaler held coffee on order, and 
billed only when delivered, even after weeks or months. 

About Package Coffees 

Since the beginning of the 20th century, the sale of coffee 
in packages has increased steadily, until now (1924) this 


145 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


form of distribution competes strongly with bulk coffee sales. 
While bulk coffee is still preferred in some eastern sections 
of the United States, coffee packers are making deep in¬ 
roads there, to the extent that practically all high- and 
medium-grade retailers feature package coffees, either under 
their own brand name or under that of a coffee specialty 
house. 

The prime requisite for success in any package coffee is 
the composition of the blend. One of the leaders in the 
field, which we will call Y, is said to be composed of Bogota, 
Bourbon Santos, and Mexican. In 1924, it was being sold 
at retail in New York for 45 cents. A competing brand, 
which we will call Z, is said to be a blend of Bogota and 
Bourbon Santos. It was being sold at retail in New York 
at the same time for the same price. Simultaneously, in 
the retail stores of a well-known chain system, a bulk blend 
composed of 60 percent Bourbon Santos and 40 percent 
Bogota was to be had loose for 35 cents. 

The second important factor that contributes to package- 
coffee success is the container. It must be of such character 
as will best preserve the freshness—the flavor and aroma of 
the coffee—until it reaches the consumer. 

Package coffee has not yet won universal favor. Some 
of the arguments used against it are that the price is gen¬ 
erally higher than the same grade in bulk; that it leads to 
price cutting by stores that can afford to sell it at about cost 
as a leader for other aiticles; that the margin of profit is 
frequently too close for some retailers; that, when the market 
advances, some packers change their blends to keep down 
cost and to maintain the advertised price; and that, when 
packed ground, there is a rapid loss of flavor, aroma, and 
strength. 

Friends of package coffees point to the saving in time in 
handling in the store; to the fact that the contents of a 
package are not contaminated by odors or dirt; that the 
blends are prepared by experts and are always uniform; 

146 


SELLING ROASTED COFFEE AT WHOLESALE 




o 

X 

C/3 


8 

a 




!^22ssii3i3iaiiiiiisaii5Siiiii 
*■ SSSlilllllillllllliillillil« 
asiiiiiiiiiiiillliiiiil! 

s rnmmmmmMmmimm I 

S IB WH — B81! 

fi ****************** i 

“ 31 I 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


that the coffee is always properly roasted, and, in the case 
of package ground coffee, properly ground; that the brand 
names are widely and consistently advertised, and that the 
retailer has the benefit of the packer’s cooperation in build¬ 
ing up sales campaigns, by means of booklets and local 
advertising. 

Various Types of Coffee Containers 

Five types of containers are used for packing coffee; 
namely, cardboard cartons, paper bags, fiber or paper cans, 
tin cans, and composite (tin and fiber) cans and packages. 
Fiber packages include paraffin-lined as well as those which 
have been chemically treated with other water-proof and 
flavor-retaining substances. 

The carton is popular, because it takes up less room in 
storage and in shipment to the packing plant, and also be¬ 
cause the label can be printed directly on the package. An¬ 
other economy feature is its adaptability to the automatic 
packaging machine, which transforms it from a flat sheet 
into a wrapped and sealed package of coffee. Moisture- 
proof and flavor-retaining inner liners and outside wrappers 
are generally used to prevent rapid deterioration of the 
coffee’s strength and aroma. 

Paper bags are the least expensive containers to be ob¬ 
tained; and, when lined with foil or prepared paper, are 
considered to be satisfactory. Like the carton, the label can 
be printed directly upon the bag. They also lend them¬ 
selves to close packing in shipping cases. 

Another popular type of container is the paper, or fiber, 
can which is made of fiber board with a slip cover. Fiber 
cans are also made with tin tops and bottoms, the metal 
parts supplying a measure of rigidity to the package. These 
composite packages are made round, square, oblong or 
cylindrical. 

Paraffined containers are characterized by an outer cover¬ 
ing of glossy paraffin, and are made in various shapes. In 
some makes, the paraffin is forced into the pores of the paper 

148 


SELLING ROASTED COFFEE AT WHOLESALE 


base, making for added flavor-retaining and moisture-proof 
properties. In this type of package the label may also be 
printed direct on the package. 

In recent years, vacuum-packed coffee has won great 
favor, first in the West and latterly in the East. Tin cans 
are used. Vacuum sealing machines close the containers at 
the rate of 40 to 50 a minute. Private tests by responsible 
coffee men are said to have shown that coffee in the bean or 
ground, when vacuum packed, retains its freshness for a 
longer period than when packed by any other method. 

Labels 

Coffee packers must give due attention to certain well 
defined laws bearing on package labels. Before the federal 
Pure Food Act went into effect on January 1, 1907, many 
coffee labels bore the magic names of “Mocha” and “Java,” 
when in fact neither of those two celebrated coffees was 
used in the blend. Even mixtures containing a large per¬ 
centage of chicory or other addition were labeled “Pure 
Mocha and Java Coffee.” The enactment of the Pure Food 
Law ended this practice, making it compulsory that the 
label should state either the actual coffees used in the blend, 
or a brand name, together with the name of either the packer 
or the distributer. When chicory or other addition is used, 
the fact must be stated in clear type directly following the 
brand name. The reading matter on the label should con¬ 
tain statements of fact only, and should not bear extrava¬ 
gant claims of superior quality or of methods of preparing 
or packing that have not been followed. 

Coffee-Packaging Economies 

During the United States’ participation in the World War, 
tin became practically unobtainable, and coffee packers 
turned to paper and fiber containers as substitutes in pack¬ 
aging nearly all grades. In this war period, commercial 
economy became a fetish in the business world, and coffee 
packers worked to save not only material, but shipping space, 


149 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


labor, and time. Paper and fib£r containers proved to be 
not only practicable but economical packages. Because of 
their wartime experience, many packers changed permanently 
to square and oblong containers. They found that these 
could be packed “solid” in shipping cases, leaving no un¬ 
filled space between packages, as is the case with cylindrical 
cans; also, that smaller shipping cases could be used. As 
a further measure of economy, several packers changed from 
the square “knocked-down” paper or fiber carton to the 
oblong carton that is made up, filled, and sealed by auto¬ 
matic machinery from a flat, printed sheet of cardboard. 
This type of container is generally lined or wrapped with 
a moisture-proof and flavor-retaining paper. 

There has been a tendency in recent years to standardize 
coffee packages as a means of working out packaging and 
shipping economies. One of the leading American pro¬ 
ponents of standardization said: 

One of the -first arguments raised against standardization is 
that it eliminates individuality, and individuality is one of the 
big guns covering the front line trenches in the war of competi¬ 
tion. The folly of recommending that every one-pound coffee car¬ 
ton, for instance, should be of exactly the same size and shape is 
immediately apparent; but let us not confuse such unification 
with standardization. 

Assuming that a pound of coffee may be safely contained in 72 
cubic inches, we find that a carton three inches thick by four 
inches wide by six inches high will serve our purpose; and, as 
an illustration of extremes, a carton three inches thick by three 
inches wide by eight inches high, or one [carton] two inches thick 
by six inches wide by six inches high, will each have exactly the 
same cubical contents. In fact, there is an almost infinite variety 
of combinations of dimensions which will contain substantially 
72 cubic inches. 

As an example of how coffee packages can be standard¬ 
ized, this authority cites the following sizes of flat-sheet 
containers and their respective dimensions and capacities: 


150 


SELLING ROASTED COFFEE AT WHOLESALE 


Thick and Wide, High, Contents, 


Size Inches Inches Cubic Inches 

1 lb. 2% by 4y 2 6% 73.83 

% lb.. 214 by 3% 5% 36,91 

% lb. lft by 2% 41/2 18.46 


The advantages claimed for these packages are that each 
is well proportioned and makes a good selling appearance, 
each bears a direct relation to the other two, and all may 
be handled with uniformly good results on the same set of 
standardized packaging machinery. One size of shipping 
case, instead of three, may be used to hold exactly the same 
number of pounds of coffee, regardless of whether shipped 
in one-pound, half-pound, or quarter-pound cartons. For 
smaller-dealer assortments, any two or all three sizes also 
exactly fit the following standard shipping cases: 

For 36 lbs., 13% in. by 16% in. by 12% in. high. 

For 54 lbs., 13% in. by 16% in. by 19% in. high. 

This standardization of packages and shipping containers 
results in a lower cost of containers and a smaller stock 

to carry, with attendant reductions in details in purchasing 

and billing departments, in inventories, and in many other 
overhead expense factors. 

Practical Grocer Helps 

Wholesale coffee merchandising does not properly end 
with the delivery of a shipment of coffee to a retailer. The 
progressive wholesaler knows that it is to his best interest 
to help that grocer sell his coffee as quickly as possible, to 
make a good profit on a quick turnover, and to dispose of 
it before the coffee has deteriorated. 

Practical cooperation between wholesaler and retailer is 
one of the most important factors in coffee merchandising. 
In these days of keen and unremitting competition, neither 
agency can stand alone for long. The progressive whole¬ 
saler does not sell a retailer a poorer quality of coffee for 
any particular grade than his trade calls for, and he does 


151 





COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


not load him up with more than can be disposed of while 
still fresh. He gages the capacity and facilities of each 
retail customer, and then gives him practical help to keep 
the stock moving. 

The packer of branded coffees helps by advertising to 
the consumer in magazines and newspapers, always featur¬ 
ing the name of his brands; and he supplies the grocer with 
educational pamphlets and booklets on the growing, prepara¬ 
tion, and merits of coffee in general, with an added fillip 
about the desirability of his particular brand. Through his 
salesmen the packer shows the grocer how to display the 
coffee on the counter and in the window, and often supplies 
him with placards and cut-outs featuring his brand. He 
cooperates in staging special coffee demonstrations in the, 
store, instructs the retailer in the importance of teaching his 
clerks how to talk and to sell coffee intelligently, and how 
to prepare advertising copy for his local newspaper, so as to 
get the fullest measure of profit from the wholesaler’s na¬ 
tional or sectional advertising. 

Coffee Sampling 

The sampling method of creating a demand for merchan¬ 
dise has been tried in the wholesale coffee trade, only to be 
abandoned by the majority of packers. With other and more 
satisfactory ways of creating consumer interest, promiscuous 
sampling was found to be too expensive, in view of the com¬ 
paratively small returns. One indictment against sampling 
is that it does not make any more impression on the aver¬ 
age person than does an advertisement that appears only 
once, and is then abandoned. Wide-awake merchants have 
learned that the public’s memory is exceedingly short; and 
that they must keep “hammering” with advertisements to 
establish and to maintain a demand for their products. 

It would seem that the logical place for sampling is in 
the retailer’s store, especially in connection with demonstra¬ 
tions. Many progressive grocers stimulate interest in their 


152 


SELLING ROASTED COFFEE AT WHOLESALE 


coffees by serving, on special demonstration days, small cups 
of freshly brewed coffee, giving the customer a small sample 
of the brand or blend used, to be taken home to see if the 
same pleasing results can be obtained there also. Generally, 
this form of sampling, when properly conducted, has shown 
a larger percentage of returns than any other method. 

Premium Method of Sales Promotion 

For many years, the premium method of sales promotion 
has been an important factor in wholesale coffee merchandis¬ 
ing, as well as in retail distribution. The premium system 
has been characterized as a form of advertising, and many 
coffee packers and wholesalers prefer to spend their adver¬ 
tising appropriations in that way rather than in transitory 
printed advertisements in newspapers and general magazines. 

While certain forms of the system have been legislated out 
of existence in some states, friends of the plan claim that 
it is a true profit-sharing method which “blesses both him 
that gives and him that takes,” and that it is an advanced 
and legitimate means of promoting business, when properly 
conducted. They assert that it is a system of sales promo¬ 
tion whereby the advertising expense, plus a large percent¬ 
age of the profits of the business stimulated thereby, is auto¬ 
matically returned to the dealer buyer, without increasing 
cost or lowering the quality of the product so advertised; 
that it eliminates advertising waste by producing a given 
volume of sales for a given expenditure of money; that it 
reduces the cost of advertising by prompting a continuous 
series of purchases at one advertising expense; that it pro¬ 
motes cash payments and discourages credit business. Pre¬ 
mium users claim that the force of a printed advertisement 
is often spent in stimulating the first purchase; while, to 
secure a premium, the purchaser must continue to buy the 
commodity carrying the premium, or trade with the giver of 
the premium until merchandise of a stipulated value or quan¬ 
tity has been purchased. 


153 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


In general practice, the premium-giving coffee packer or 
wholesaler may either offer the retailer an inducement in the 
form of a desirable store fixture, household article, or item 
for his personal use, or he may offer it to the consumer 
through the retailer. 

The methods of giving the premium are numerous. To 
the retailer he may give the article outright with each pur¬ 
chase of a stipulated quantity of his coffee, or he may offer 
it as a prize to the retail distributer selling the most coffee in 
a certain period in a specified territory. Frequently the 
premium is of such value that the wholesaler cannot give it 
with any quantity of coffee a distributer can dispose of in a 
short time; so he issues coupons or certificates with each 
purchase, permitting the retailer to redeem the premium when 
he has saved the required number; or, the retailer may get 
the premium with the first purchase by paying the difference 
in cash. 

In giving premiums to consumers, the wholesaler follows 
the same general plan used with retailers, except that in 
most cases the coupons are packed with the coffee and are 
redeemable at the retailer’s store. Sometimes, however, the 
consumer sends the coupons or certificates to the wholesaler, 
getting the premium direct from him. In another phase of 
the premium system, the retailer works independently of 
the wholesaler, buying and giving away his own premiums 
to promote or to hold trade for his store. This phase is 
explained in the next chapter. 



154 




COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Luhrs, of Poughkeepsie, N. Y., Features Freshly Roasted Coffee in His Window 
Smoke from the roasters is blown into the street through the coffee pot over the door. 
























CHAPTER XIV 


SELLING COFFEE AT RETAIL 

How coffees are sold at retail — The place of the 
grocer, the tea and coffee dealer, the chain store, and 
the wagon-route distributer in the scheme of dis¬ 
tribution — Starting in the retail coffee business — 
Coffee blends for retailers — Small roasters for retail 
dealers — Model coffee departments — Creating a 
coffee trade — Meeting competition — Profits and 
costs — Splitting nickels — Figures costs and profits 
— A credit policy for retailers — Premiums for re¬ 
tailers — How to build and hold a retail coffee 
business. 

S EVEN different types of distributers figure in the retail 
merchandising of coffee in the United States. These 
are the independent retail grocer, chain store, mail¬ 
order house, house-to-house wagon-route distributer, specialty 
tea and coffee store, department store, and drug store. 

Considering the methods of merchandising, the seven re¬ 
tail distributing agencies may be grouped into three distinct 
classes. The first class would comprise the independent 
grocer, the chain store, the department store, the drug store, 
and the specialty store, all of which maintain stores where 
the consumer comes to buy. The second class takes in the 
mail-order house, which solicits orders and delivers its coffee 
by mail, and sometimes by freight or express. The third 
class covers the wagon-route dealer, who goes from house to 
house seeking trade, and delivers his coffee on order at 
regular periods direct to the consumer in the home. As an 
inducement to contracting for large quantities to be delivered 
in weekly or biweekly periods, the house-to-house dealer 
generally gives some household article, or the like, as a pre- 


155 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


mium to establish goodwill and to retain the trade of his 
customers. 

The mail-order houses confine their sales efforts to agri¬ 
cultural districts and small towns, soliciting trade by cata¬ 
logs, by circular letters, and by advertisements in local news¬ 
papers, and in magazines which circulate chiefly among 
dwellers in rural districts. 

The majority of wagon-route distributers depend upon 
the lure of their premiums, and upon personal calls, to develop 
and hold their coffee trade. The leading wagon-route com¬ 
panies, sometimes called “premium houses,” maintain offices 
and plants in cities or towns adjacent to the territories to 
which they confine their sales efforts. At strategic points, 
they have district agents who engage the wagon men that do 
the actual soliciting of orders and deliver the coffee. All 
wagon-route companies handle other products besides coffee, 
specializing in tea, spices, extracts, and such household goods 
as soap, perfumes, and other toilet requisites that promise 
quick sale and frequent reorders. 

Wagon-route coffee retailing began to make itself felt seri¬ 
ously about the year 1900. At first, the premiums usually 
consisted of a cup and saucer with the first order, the cus¬ 
tomer being led to continue buying until at least a full set 
of dishes had been acquired. Later, the range of premiums 
was expanded, until today the wagon man offers several hun¬ 
dred different articles that can be used in the home or for 
personal wear or adornment. Practically all the leading 
wagon-route concerns favor the advance-premium method; 
that is, a special canvasser induces a consumer to contract 
for a large quantity of coffee and other products in return 
for receiving the premium at once, though the coffee is de¬ 
livered only as the customer wants it, generally two pounds 
every two weeks. The wagon man delivers the coffee, and 
is usually held responsible for the customer’s fulfilling the 
agreement, and is expected to secure repeat orders with other 
premiums. 


156 


SELLING COFFEE AT RETAIL 


The importance of the wagon-route plan of coffee-retailing 
is shown by the fact that in 1924 there were 600 houses of 
this kind in the United States; and it was estimated that 
they distributed 10 percent of the total amount of the 
coffee consumed in the country. The biggest company was 
capitalized at $16,000,000, and operated 1,100 wagons. 
Most of the wagon-route concerns were operating in the cen¬ 
tral states, practically one-third of them covering the states 
of Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Iowa. Pennsylvania is 
also a wagon-route-dealer center. 

The premium wagon-route distributers have an organiza¬ 
tion called the National Retail Tea & Coffee Merchants’ 
Association. It is composed of 200 members (all of whom 
use premiums), who operate 3,500 wagons. The largest 
single wagon-route operator is the Jewel Tea Company, 
of Chicago. The members of this organization claimed to 
have served more than 3,000,000 families in 1923. 

In the chain-store system of merchandising, we see the 
opposite extreme of coffee retailing. The wagon-route man 
features his delivery service; while, in the chain-store plan, 
all customers must pay cash and carry home their parcels 
(some chain stores, however, maintain more or less com¬ 
plete delivery service). Though the earliest established 
chain stores gave premiums, the practice has now been gen¬ 
erally abandoned. Roasting, blending, and packing coffee 
in a large central plant, the chain-store operator advertises 
that he can sell coffee at a price lower than his competitors. 
As a rule, only one grade of coffee is offered for sale. While 
it is generally good value, many consumers prefer better 
quality and go to the independent grocer for it. Others 
patronize the grocer because of his convenient delivery serv¬ 
ice, and because he gives credit on purchases. Chain-store 
organizations seem to be growing rapidly, however; the larg¬ 
est of the chains, the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company, 
reporting in 1924 that it had nearly 10,000 branches through¬ 
out the country, which sell 60,000,000 pounds of coffee an- 


157 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

nually. This chain has a capitalization of $13,750,000, and 
in 1923-24 sold $302,880,369 worth of groceries, as com¬ 
pared with $246,940,873 in the preceding year. This com¬ 
pany opens about 1,500 new stores every year. 

The chain-store men are organized in the National Chain 
Store Grocers’ Association, having 75 members, representing 
25,000 stores, operating in 23 states. It is estimated that 
there are not to exceed 150 chain-store grocery organizations 
in the United States, representing about 30,000 store units 
and having a minimum of 25 units each. The chain-store 
grocer turns his stock over from 12 to 25 times a year, sells 
for cash, makes no deliveries, and claims to save the con¬ 
sumer an average of 15 percent in buying. These stores 
do business on a net margin not exceeding three percent on 
sales, as against the average retail grocer’s 30 percent, while 
their average gross cost of doing business has been stated as 
between I3y 2 percent (lowest) and 18^2 percent (highest). 

It is estimated that these chain-store organizations dis¬ 
tribute 270,000,000 pounds of coffee a year, or about 20 
percent of the total amount consumed in the United States. 

Starting in the Retail Coffee Business 

When taking up the retail merchandising of coffee, the 
practical grocer learns all he can about the popular grades 
to be had in the principal markets, and how the coffees 
are grown, roasted, blended, and ground. He also ascer¬ 
tains the best methods of brewing, testing out each grade 
and kind on his own table, if he does not have testing facili¬ 
ties in his store. He studies the relative trade values of 
different varieties of coffee and the requirements of his par¬ 
ticular clientele. 

An interesting analysis of some 250 grocery stores in the 
United States 1 made in 1919, showed that 29 percent of the 
dealers bought all their coffee from wholesale grocers, 48 
percent exclusively from roasters and specialty wholesalers, 

1 Bureau of Business Research, Harvard University. 


158 


SELLING COFFEE AT RETAIL 


10 percent got over half of their coffee from wholesale 
grocers, and 13 percent bought less than half from the 
wholesale grocery houses. 

There are two fundamental plans on which a retailer 
builds a successful coffee business,—by buying coffee already 
roasted, and by buying it green and roasting it in the store. 
Each plan has its advantages; but its practicability depends 
upon conditions in different localities. 

Beyond acquiring a general talking knowledge about 
coffees, the retailer buying his stocks roasted in bulk or 
package form does not generally need the intimate knowl¬ 
edge of his goods required by the grocer who roasts his own 
coffee. If he grinds the coffee for his customers, he must 
know the type of grind best suited to the way the coffee is 
to be brewed, and must be able to tell the best brewing 
method. 

The practical grocer who makes up his own blend is ac¬ 
quainted with blending principles and methods. While he 
cannot expect to be so expert as the large wholesale blender, 
he should know that green coffees are generally classified by 
blenders into five great divisions; Brazils, including Santos, 
Bourbon, and flat bean, Rios, Victorias, and Bahias; Washed 
Milds, embracing, as of the most commercial value, Bogotas, 
Bucaramangas, Guatemalas, Mexicans, Costa Ricans, Mara¬ 
caibos, and Meridas; Unwashed Milds, such as Maracaibos, 
Bucaramangas, La Guairas, and Mexicans; Javas, Sumatras, 
and Padangs; and Mocha and Harari. 

It has been found by experience that a good assortment 
for the average retailer to carry consists of Santos, because 
of price; a natural unwashed Maracaibo or Bucaramanga, 
because of full body and general blending values; and a 
'washed coffee, preferably a Bogota, which gives quality and 
character to a blend. In stocking up with these coffees, the 
practical merchant avoids Santos with a strong or Rioy 
flavor, bitter or “hidy” Maracaibos, and acidy or thin 
Bogotas. 


159 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


A grocer equipped with these coffees has the Santos for 
his low-priced seller. For his medium grade, he blends 
Santos and Maracaibo, half-and-half. The next higher 
grade is made up of one-third each of the three coffees; 
while the best blend consists either of half-and-half Bogota 
and Maracaibo, or three-quarters Bogota and one-quarter 
Maracaibo. 

The chief advantage of these three coffees is that they 
t>lend well in any way they are mixed; and the dealer with 
a little experience, and working with the two necessary ideas 
in mind,—satisfactory coffee and price,—can make up vari¬ 
ous combinations. 

In view of the fact that the United States imports coffee 
from more than a hundred different sections of the world, 
and that there are wide variations in flavor among the 
coffees produced in each of the hundred, it is easy to under¬ 
stand that the blender has an almost unlimited supply from 
which to make up a blend with a distinctive individuality. 
Practically all coffee importers, and most wholesalers, are 
thoroughly acquainted with the relative trade values of the 
different coffees, and help their customers make up desirable 
blends. 


Small Roasters for Retail Dealers 

While the wholesale coffee roaster is obliged to install a 
large and somewhat complex equipment, the retailer must 
use a small, compact, self-contained unit that does not take 
up much space in his store and is easily operated. Retail 
roasting machines are constructed on the same general prin¬ 
ciple as the wholesale roaster. The roasting cylinder is 
generally revolved by electric power and the heat is derived 
from gas or gasoline fuel. Cooling is by air suction in a 
box attached to the roaster. The capacities of the machines 
range from 10 to 300 pounds, the operating cost running 
from approximately eight cents per 100 pounds for gas fuel 
and 10 cents for electric power. The roasters cost from $300 


160 


SELLING COFFEE AT RETAIL 


for the smaller sizes to $1,500 for the one-bag type, and to 
$2,000 or $3,000 for the two-bag type. 

One coffee-roaster-machinery manufacturer has recently 
brought out a gas-fired, electrically operated, 50-pound minia¬ 
ture coffee-roasting plant designed for retail stores, which 
comprises a roaster, a rotary cooler, and a stoning device, 
that sells for $650. 

Retail coffee roasting is similar to the wholesale operation. 
When the cylinder has become heated, the green coffee is run 
in and allowed to roast in the revolving cylinder for about 
half an hour. If the coffee is the average green kind, the 
full heat may be applied at once; but, if old and dry, a 
lesser degree is used. When the roast begins to snap, the 
flame is turned lower, to allow the beans to cook through 
evenly, and, when nearly done, it is almost extinguished. 
During the operation, the roaster man, who may be the pro¬ 
prietor or a clerk delegated to the work, frequently “samples” 
the coffee by taking out a small quantity with his “trier” 
and comparing the color of the roast with a type sample. 
When the colors match exactly, the coffee is dumped auto¬ 
matically into the cooler box just below the cylinder open¬ 
ing, and, when sufficiently cooled, is ready for grinding to 
order. 

A large number of retailers roast coffee in their stores; 
and the most successful find that, besides being able to make 
a feature of freshly roasted coffee, they can save money and 
increase their sales. One progressive grocer found that he 
was able to get 88 pounds of roasted coffee out of 100 
pounds of green coffee, as compared with the wholesaler’s 
84 pounds; that he could buy green coffee at a closer price 
than roasted; and that it cost him less for labor, fuel, over¬ 
head, and similar items than it did the wholesale roaster 
to turn out a roast. 

A chain of coffee specialty stores in which the coffee is 
roasted fresh every day was started in California about 1916, 
and met with almost instant success. In this system, the 


161 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


proprietor buys the green coffee in large quantities, and it is 
roasted in each of his specialty stores, which are located in 
public markets, store windows, and alongside heavily 
traveled highways. The roasting machinery is invariably 
set up in front of the store where passersby can easily see it 
in operation and also smell the coffee roasting. Four years 
after starting the first store, there were 50 in operation along 
the Pacific Coast, doing an annual business of $600,000, 
some units taking in more than $7,000 a month. 

Model Coffee Departments 

Authorities generally agree that a well-laid-out coffee de¬ 
partment not only increases a grocer’s coffee business, but 
speeds up sales in other departments as well. Coffee lovers 
are inclined to “shop around” for a coffee that suits their 
taste, and, when they have found the store that sells it, they 
buy their other groceries there also. Another argument ad¬ 
vanced in favor of a coffee department is that coffee pays 
more money into the retailer’s cash drawer than any other 
grocery item. 

Most successful retail coffee merchandisers establish the 
coffee department near the entrance to the store, where it can 
be seen through a window by passersby, especially if there is 
ornamental roasting and grinding equipment. It has been 
found that a department at the left of the entrance is almost 
certain to draw attention, because people are inclined to 
glance in that direction first. Some merchants, having the 
space, erect attractive booths, designed somewhat like the 
familiar food-show booths, directly in front of the door, 
after the fashion of department stores when holding a special 
sale on a certain article. Such a booth is generally used 
for demonstration purposes, and is decorated with signs and 
possibly with bunting. A permanent department is usually 
less ornamental, but still attractive. In telling how he made 
a sucess of his department, one American grocer said that 
he was careful that his fixtures were not so ornamental as 


162 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Johnson, of Red Oak. Iowa, Roasts Before the Customer 





























SELLING COFFEE AT RETAIL 


to draw attention from the goods. While the decorations 
were always attractive, they were subordinated sufficiently 
to form a background for his coffee display. 

The most popular layout is the conventional counter sys¬ 
tem, behind which the clerk stands to serve the customer on 
the other side. There are many advocates of the counter 
that is built into the shelving, believing that, the closer the 
customers are brought to the coffee, the more they will be 
inclined to buy. This system also makes for cleanliness, 
doing away with the possibility of the runway behind the 
counter becoming a catch-all for dirt, tom paper, bits of 
wood, and the like. 

The modern coffee department has counters divided into 
compartments having glass fronts. This type serves both as 
a storage place for coffee and for display purposes. The 
top of the counter is used for wrapping up parcels, etc., and 
also for displaying bulk and package coffees. In the well 
regulated store, the counter top is never used for storage, all 
stock being kept on shelves or in the counter’s compartments. 
Good merchants find that cleanliness pays; and that a 
“littered up” store drives away desirable custom. The 
wise proprietor never allows a clerk to weigh out coffee after 
handling cheese, onions, and other odorous articles, without 
first thoroughly washing his hands. He knows that few 
food products in his store will more quickly absorb unde¬ 
sirable odors and flavors than coffee, and consequently is 
careful to protect his coffee from contamination. In the 
better stores, the proprietor will either take charge of the 
coffee department himself, or will delegate a competent man 
who will do nothing else. 

The wide-awake retail coffee roaster always features his 
roasting machine, which is generally highly ornamental and 
draws attention even when not in use. Some progressive 
merchants plan to roast coffee at noontime and at night, 
when homeward-bound passersby are hungry and are par¬ 
ticularly susceptible to the pungent aroma of roasting coffee. 


163 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


It is a quite common plan for the retail roaster to arrange 
the exhaust of the machine so that the full strength of the 
odor is blown into the street. 

Creating a Coffee Trade 

Because of steady sales and quick profits, there is keener 
competition in retail coffee merchandising than in other food 
products; but, all things being equal, any intelligent person 
can create and hold a profitable trade if he follows approved 
business methods—and works. The best practice among 
coffee merchants shows that the prime essential is good 
coffee, freshly roasted and ground. After that comes intelli¬ 
gent and unremitting sales-promotion work. 

The many ingenious trade-building plans worked out 
successfully by grocers in all parts of the country are too 
numerous to describe in a book of this character, but the 
methods cited in the following, all of which have been tested 
in actual working conditions, will serve to indicate the fun¬ 
damentals of good retail coffee-sales promotion. 

Among the chief sales-winning methods are demonstra¬ 
tions in the store, at local food shows, and at church socials, 
picnics, or functions, judicious sampling either in person or 
by mail, personal canvassing from house to house, circular¬ 
izing by mail, linking up window displays with current 
happenings, local newspaper and outdoor poster advertis¬ 
ing, and selling coffee by telephone. Most of the foregoing 
plans are worked intermittently. The telephone, however, 
is a most important sales factor, and should be employed 
constantly and consistently. Many successful stores con¬ 
sider the telephone, properly used, the greatest single sales 
help in retail coffee merchandising. 

One grocer had such faith in this method that he paid 
half the annual telephone rental for a large number of his 
best-paying customers. Another large merchandiser put in 
an individual telephone for each of his salesmen, who called 
up his regular customers each day to suggest articles for 


164 


SELLING COFFEE AT RETAIL 


that day’s order, always of course mentioning their “su¬ 
perior brand of coffee.” Telephoning is the next step to 
personal contact, and, if tactfully done, is considered to be 
even more advantageous because of the time it saves both 
the customer and the storekeeper. 

Coffee demonstrations in stores are easily arranged, in 
most cases. The main consideration is fresh coffee of good 
quality, served daintily and hot. Lacking a coffee urn, 
some grocers make their brews in large-size home-service 
coffee-making devices. Those most advanced in the correct 
method of brewing use the drip process. It is generally 
agreed that demonstrations should not be held too often. 
They not only cut into profits, but lose much of their ad¬ 
vertising value. Food-show demonstrations require more 
elaborate equipment, consisting of a decorated booth, edu¬ 
cational booklets, posters, and exhibits of different kinds 
of coffee, both green and roasted, whole bean and ground. 
Generally, coffee packers cooperate with retail demonstra¬ 
tors by suppling gratis the coffee to be brewed, if the names 
of their brands are suitably displayed. They supply also 
posters, signs, samples, and booklets for free distribution. 

Window displays form one of the best means of advertis¬ 
ing at the command of the average grocer, and one of the 
least expensive. A popular coffee display consists of a 
series of educational “windows,” starting with green beans 
in the bags in which they are shipped from the growing 
country. Generally the bags, mats, or bundles are obtained 
from the wholesale house, and are filled almost to the top 
with some inexpensive stuffing, the green coffee being spread 
over the top to give the appearance of a full bag. Pictures 
showing how the coffee is grown, harvested, prepared, and 
shipped are frequently used in such a display. The next 
exhibit consists of whole roasted coffee spread thickly over 
the window floor to create the impression of bulk, accom¬ 
panied by a few pans of green coffee by way of contrast, 
and with pictures showing scenes in coffee-roasting plants. 

165 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


A barrel, lined with blue paper, and lying on its side with 
roasted coffee beans spilling out, serves as a centerpiece for 
such a display. Following this, comes a coffee package 
window, accompanied by pictures showing how coffee is 
roasted, ground, and packed. This completes the series; but 
there are many variations that have proved successful as 
trade builders. 

Meeting Competition 

Since the advent of the wagon-route distributer and the 
chain store, the independent retail grocer has been faced 
with the problem of how to regain at least a fair measure 
of the coffee trade he has lost. The grocer is not only con¬ 
cerned about his profits on coffee sales, but on other goods 
as well; for a trade investigation has shown that a large 
percentage of the regular customers of the retailer are held 
to the store by their purchases of coffee and tea. This 
means that if coffees and teas are bought from the wagon- 
route distributer and the chain store, the remainder of a 
family's order is “shopped around.” 

To meet this competition, the best authorities agree that 
the independent grocer should feature coffee in every prac¬ 
tical way, such as soliciting coffee trade from each customer 
that enters the store; give up offering coffee on a price basis, 
and make up his own blends from good-quality growths; 
perhaps make up his own brand and push it at every oppor¬ 
tunity; display coffee artistically, with frequent changes of 
layouts; and have occasional store demonstrations. He 
should see that the coffee is roasted properly, and that it is 
always fresh; that the selling effort is not expended on the 
lowest-priced blend, but on a grade that can be recommended 
for cup merit. This should be a leader, but a lower-price 
coffee could be carried to suit the trade that buys on price. 
Persistent efforts should be made to persuade the last-named 
class of customers to use the better grades, which in the 
end are cheaper and give better satisfaction. In short, the 


166 


SELLING COFFEE AT RETAIL 


grocer should work consistently to establish a vogue for 
nis leader blend on the basis of merit. 

Profits and Costs 

Because of its influence on other grocery items, coffee can 
often be sold at a close margin of profit, particularly if a 
competitor’s store or wagons are cutting into a grocer’s neigh¬ 
borhood trade. Twenty-five percent is recommended as a 
reasonable gross profit on coffee in most cases, although some 
grocers make less, and not a few make more; the range being 
usually from 20 to 39 percent. The independent dealer 
should meet chain-store competition in coffee on a price basis, 
making a special on a superior grade and figuring to get 
not more than three cents’ profit a pound, like his compet¬ 
itor. A bag of roasted coffee will bring back $3 gain, and 
the cash to pay for another—and the grocer has kept his 
customers, 90 percent of whom, theoretically, will have 
bought their other food supplies from him. As a matter 
of fact, in the last year of the World War retailers showed 
a tendency to demand cash on sales of all grocery items. 
This practice reduces the cost of operation and allows the 
storekeeper to reduce his prices. A large number of grocers 
charge a small percentage of the total sale for credit privi¬ 
leges, and five or 10 cents for each delivery below a certain 
total value of the purchase price of the articles to be de¬ 
livered. As a result, they have been able to meet chain- 
store competition. Collective buying has also been a factor 
in offsetting the inroads of the “chains.” 

Splitting Nickels 

One of the reasons advanced for the loss of coffee trade 
by retail grocers is that they price their blends in “round 
numbers,” that is, 20, 25, 30, or 40 cents, while their com¬ 
petitors “split nickels,” selling their product at 18, 23, 28 
or 38 cents. 

Most of the retail enterprises in other lines of trade have 
built up their business on the penny-change plan, and 


167 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


many coffee men believe that this should become the uni¬ 
versal merchandising method among retail distributers of 
coffee. One of the leading advocates of “splitting nickels” 
has worked out a chart to show how coffee should be priced 
to make predetermined profits: 

Table Showing Profit Percentage on Sales 


Selling Price and % Profit 


Cost of r 





A 




—- \ 

Coffee 

25 c. 

26c. 

27c. 

28c. 

29c. 

30c. 

31c. 

32c. 

33c. 

20c. 

20% 

23% 

26% 

28% 

31% 

33% 

35% 

37% 

39% 

2oy 2 c. 

18% 

21% 

24% 

26% 

29% 

31% 

33% 

35% 

37% 

21c. 

16% 

19% 

22% 

25% 

27% 

30% 

32% 

34% 

36% 

2iy 2 c. 

14% 

17% 

20% 

23% 

25%. 

28% 

30% 

32% 

34% 

22c. 

12% 

15% 

18% 

21% 

24% 

26% 

29% 

31% 

33% 

22%c. 

10% 

13% 

16% 

19% 

22% 

25% 

27% 

29% 

31% 

23c. 

8% 

11% 

14% 

17% 

20% 

23% 

25% 

28% 

30% 

23y 2 c. 

6% 

9% 

13% 

16% 

19% 

21% 

24% 

26% 

28% 

24c. 

4% 

7% 

11% 

14% 

17% 

20% 

22% 

25% 

27% 

24%c. 

2% 

5% 

9% 

12% 

15% 

18% 

21% 

23% 

25% 

25c. 

0% 

3% 

7% 

10% 

13% 

16% 

19% 

21% 

24% 

25y 2 c. 


2% 

5% 

8% 

12% 

15% 

17% 

20% 

22% 

26c. 


0% 

3% 

7% 

10% 

13% 

16% 

18% 

21% 

26%c. 



1% 

5% 

8% 

11% 

14% 

17% 

19% 

27c. 



0% 

3% 

6% 

10% 

12% 

15% 

18% 

27y 2 c. 




1% 

5% 

8% 

11% 

14% 

16% 

28c. 




0% 

3% 

6% 

9% 

12% 

15% 



Figuring 

Costs and 

Profits 




While the cost of conducting a retail grocery business nat¬ 
urally varies according to local conditions and the size of 
the enterprise, an investigation among some 250 stores in 
small and large cities made in 1919 by the Bureau of Busi¬ 
ness Research, Harvard University, showed that the average 
cost was 14 percent, that the net profit averaged 2.3 per¬ 
cent, and that stock was turned about seven times a year. 
Gross profits ran from 10.5 to 26.04 percent of the net 
sales, the most typical figure being 16.9 percent. Sales cost 
formed the largest single item of expense, varying from 3.41 
to 9.94 percent, with the bulk of figures showing around 1.8. 


168 



SELLING COFFEE AT RETAIL 


According to advanced business practice, the cost of doing 
business should be based on these 14 points: 

1. Charge interest on the net amount of the total investment 
at the beginning of the business year, exclusive of real estate. 

2. Charge rental on real estate or buildings at a rate equal to 
that which would be received if renting or leasing to others. 

3. Charge, in addition to what is paid for hired help, an 
amount equal to what the proprietor’s services would be worth 
to others; also treat in like manner the services of any member 
of the family employed in the business and not on the regular 
payroll. 

4. Charge depreciation on all goods carried over on which a 
less price may have to be made because of damage or any other 
cause. 

5. Charge depreciation on buildings, tools, fixtures, or any¬ 
thing else suffering from age or wear and tear. 

6. Charge donations and subscriptions paid. 

7. Charge all fixed expenses, such as taxes, insurance, water, 
lights, fuel, etc. 

8. Charge all incidental expenses, such as drayage, postage, 
office supplies, livery expenses of horses and wagons, telegrams 
and telephones, advertising, canvassing, etc. 

9. Charge losses of every character, including goods stolen, or 
sent out and not charged, allowances made customers, all debts, 
etc. 

10. Charge collection expense. 

11. Charge any other expense not enumerated here. 

12. When it is ascertained what the sum of all the foregoing 
items amounts to, prove it by the books, which will give the total 
expense for the year; divide this figure by the total of sales, and 
it will show the percent which it has cost to do business. 

13. Take this percent and deduct it from the price of any 
article sold, then subtract from the remainder what it cost (in¬ 
voice price and freight), and the result will show the net profit 
or loss on the article. 

14. Go over the selling prices of the various articles, and see 
what are profits; then get busy in putting your selling figures on 
a profitable basis, and talk it over w r ith your competitor as well. 

A Credit Policy for Retailers 

While the minor factors governing a credit policy for re¬ 
tailers vary with local conditions, the fundamental principles 


169 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


are alike everywhere, and should have the thoughtful consid¬ 
eration of all retail distributers of coffee. After a retail- 
grocery-store experience of 25 years, a past president of the 
National Association of Retail Grocers of the United States 
found that a grocer should insist upon references and a thor¬ 
ough investigation of every new applicant for credit, refus¬ 
ing the privilege when the prospective customer hesitated 
to give the needed information; that he should arrange a date 
for periodical payments, explaining that this was necessary 
so that the storekeeper could arrange to meet his own bills, 
which would enable him to discount his invoices and to sell 
his goods cheaper; that statements of accounts should be 
sent out promptly and never a few days late; that he should 
insist upon payment in full when due, requesting the cus¬ 
tomer to call if an extension of time was asked; that he 
should not let the customers decide when they would pay bills, 
bearing in mind that the possible loss of a few customers 
who did not pay promptly was offset by the advantages of 
cash when promised; that he should never abandon the hope 
of collecting an old account, but should try the method of 
sending statements only to the surest customers, sending a 
clerk for the collection of all other accounts; that he should 
personally examine all uncollected accounts every month, in¬ 
sisting upon a reason for failure to pay; that he should study 
his customers and not trust those who gave a bad impression; 
that he should have the courage to say “No” when necessary; 
not to be satisfied with merely a financial rating on a credit 
applicant, but to ascertain his general reputation and char¬ 
acter; and to help to eliminate the deadbeats by giving care 
ful attention to all requests received from other retailers foi 
credit information. 

Premiums for Retailers 

House-to-house dealers* are the largest users of premiums 
among coffee distributers. Most of them operate under what 
is known as the advance-premium method. 


170 


SELLING COFFEE AT RETAIL 


The plan followed by house-to-house dealers until about 
1910 was to issue checks redeemable in premiums after a 
certain amount of tea, coffee, or other products had been pur¬ 
chased. This practice has not been entirely abandoned; but 
in most instances the premium is now handed to the con¬ 
sumer in advance of the initial purchase in consideration of 
the buyer’s promise to use a stipulated quantity of tea, coffee, 
or other merchandise. The driver of the wagon generally 
carries a portfolio illustrating numerous premium items re¬ 
deemable through the purchase of varying amounts of mer¬ 
chandise. 

Many retail coffee stores also employ premiums, using 
both the old-style and the “advance” methods. This type 
of store, however, is being supplanted by the chain grocery 
store. 

Some independent retail grocers use premiums to a limited 
extent. These usually carry a small line of premiums, fea¬ 
turing a piece of kitchenware, or other inexpensive item, 
with bulk coffee. 

It is significant that one of the largest chain-store organiza¬ 
tions in the United States, the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea 
Company, uses few premiums today, although its business 
was founded upon the premium idea. 

Trading stamps, which are sold to grocers and other 
merchants by firms making a specialty of this form of 
premium giving, are little used nowadays. The average re¬ 
tail grocer is antagonistic to trading stamps, as a result of 
the methods of certain unscrupulous stamp dealers. Legis¬ 
lation against trading stamps is in effect in many states. 

How to Build and Hold a Retail Coffee Business 

Whether the retailer roasts his own coffee or features 
several reliable blends of package coffees, there are certain 
things he should bear in mind if he wishes to build and 
hold a substantial coffee trade. 

First he needs to know all about coffee, in order not only 

171 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


to buy intelligently, but also to discuss the subject enter¬ 
tainingly with his customers. To this end he should put 
in all the available spare time in reading up on the sub¬ 
ject. 

Every dealer should know that he is first of all a soldier 
in the army for the common good, and that as such he has 
a duty to perform in rendering a real social service; not 
to the manufacturer, not to the jobber, but to the consumer. 

Every dealer should know that “honesty is the best pol¬ 
icy” because it pays; and that is what the Latter Day Psal¬ 
mist meant when he said, “The crown of virtue is riches.” 

Every dealer should know how to figure his cost of doing 
business, remembering that this involves salary for him¬ 
self, and a charge for rent even if he owns the building. 

He should know his net profit on every pound of coffee 
he sells. 

He should know that he is not a merchant if he sells 
any product at less than 20 percent on his selling price, be¬ 
cause the approximate cost of doing business in the grocery 
line is 17 percent, and at 20 percent he makes only three 
percent net; also that there are many safe investments 
at six percent. 

He should know that his most valuable advertising 
medium is his window; and, because this is so, it should 
be dressed never less than once a week, and it would be 
better if it were dressed every other day. If he owns space 
in a newspaper, he should not repeat the same copy every 
day. 

He should know that the one great trade winner that 
costs nothing is politeness. 

He should know that another, costing little, but worth 
all it costs, is cleanliness. 

He should know that the customer is always right; that 
he is “the boss,” because he not only pays the clerks* wages, 
but also the proprietor’s salary. 

He should know that advertised goods are sold for him. 


172 


SELLING COFFEE AT RETAIL 


He should know that anybody can give goods away, but 
it takes a merchant to sell them, and this means, Do not 
be a price cutter. 

He should know that, while good fixtures cost money, 
they soon save what they cost. The initial expense is tem¬ 
porary; the saving, perpetual. 

Every dealer should know that, if he subscribes for 
every newspaper, magazine, or book published, he will not 
get so much information about his business from all of 
them put together as he will from one issue of a good 
trade paper; that the trade-paper editor is his best friend 
in his fights for fair profits; that in the advertising columns 
of his trade paper is to be found his best market place. 

He should know that a chain store and the wagon-route 
man cannot take business away from him if he is well 
posted, aggressive, and renders the right kind of service; 
that the tea and coffee business of his community belongs 
to him by right, and that it can slip away from him only 
if he neglects this profit-making department of his business. 

Then, too, the dealer should know that to get the trade 
of his community he must go after it, not wait for it to 
come to him. To be a go-getter, he should study first how 
to arrest the prospective customer’s attention, how to arouse 
his interest, how to create in him a desire to buy his favo¬ 
rite kind of coffee in the dealer’s store, and how to hold 
his trade. 

To arrest the customer’s attention, he must have a bright, 
shining store, with “come-hither” windows (the windows are 
the eyes of the store), and he may add to the attractiveness 
of the place by a window coffee roaster, or by enticing win¬ 
dow displays of coffee in bulk or in packages. 

If the dealer does his own roasting, the manufacturer of 
the roasting machine may be depended upon to furnish him 
with all needful guidance in green-coffee selection, blending, 
roasting, etc. If he buys in bulk, he should seek only re¬ 
liable sources of supply, and take advantage of all the sales 


173 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


help his jobber has to offer. Above all, he should resolve 
to carry only blends of quality,—not how many, but how 
good. Let him be sure he is right in this, then go ahead. 

Next, the proper grinding equipment is of prime import¬ 
ance. Get a good grinder and instruct the housewife in 
the matter of the right grind for her method of making the 
beverage. The National Coffee Roasters Association will 
gladly cooperate with any dealer in this matter. The live 
dealer knows that every family in his territory buys at least 
one pound of coffee a week, and if the purchase is not made 
at his store the fault is in himself, not in the customer. He 
should make up a list of names, and keep after them regu¬ 
larly, systematically. 

Any prospective customer’s interest may be aroused by 
personal attention, practical demonstration, and thoughtful 
study of his coffee requirements. Offer to make up a blend 
just for him. Have a card index to this blend, so that any 
clerk may serve him. Send solicitors to call upon him at 
his home. Demonstrate at church fairs and social gather¬ 
ings. Get a good coffee maker, and demonstrate the gospel 
of good coffee making in all seasons. Give it away, or, better 
still, sell it to him. Be an authority on the proper grind¬ 
ing and brewing of coffee. Be a coffee enthusiast. Such 
enthusiasm is infectious. The coffee custom of any com¬ 
munity will soon wear a beaten path to such a dealer’s 
st«re. 



174 



COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



In One of the Coffee Kitchens of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, New York 







CHAPTER XV 


BREWING COFFEE IN HOTELS 
AND RESTAURANTS 

Analyzing the potential market — The supreme coffee 
test — Freshly roasted and freshly ground — Coffee¬ 
brewing conclusions — Coffee urns — Rules for mak¬ 
ing coffee in hotels and restaurants — General 
directions for improving coffee service — How to 
operate a successful coffee shop, with sample menus; 
hints on equipment and service. 

T HE correct brewing of coffee in hotels, restaurants, cafe¬ 
terias, soda fountains, and in centralized “eating 
places” should interest every dealer, because these are 
important avenues through which to promote an increase in 
coffee consumption. Intelligent study of this subject is cer¬ 
tain to result in more business. 

Analyze the Potential Market 

It will pay any coffee man to make an analysis of the 
hotel and restaurant trade in his community. Invariably 
there is room for improvement or need for reform. Until 
recent years, it used to be said that public eating places 
in the United States where good coffee might be had were 
few and far between; yet many a hotel and restaurant has 
built up a national reputation on its coffee. The old Astor 
House in New York enjoyed such a reputation. 

The American breakfast cup is a food beverage because 
of the milk or cream and sugar additions, and more and 
more this same generous cup serves again as a necessary 
part of the noonday and evening meals for most people. 
Any hotel or restaurant man will lend a willing ear to sug- 

175 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

gestions making for improvements in his coffee. This is a 
splendid avenue of sales approach. Once an eating place 
gains a reputation for surpassing coffee, its fortune is made. 
No one thing attracts and holds patronage like good coffee. 

In making an analysis of the coffee needs of any hotel 
or restaurant, the starting point is to find out the class of 
patrons catered to and suggest the best blend for that trade. 
If it is a popular eating place, it may be foolish to suggest 
a high-priced blend, for the patrons may have acquired a 
combination coffee and chicory taste. In the chapter on 
Coffee Blending, we have already discussed the matter of 
suitable blends for hotels and restaurants. It is necessary to 
add here only that after the best blend for the money has 
been selected the emphasis should be placed upon freshness 
and the most efficient grinding and brewing. 

Certain A-B-C’s of grinding and brewing should be gone 
over with the customer, for the chances are that he is not 
a coffee specialist and does not realize the importance of 
them. 

The Supreme Coffee Test 

The supreme test of the coffee served in any restaurant 
is this: Does it inspire the customer with a desire for more? 
Does he come back for a second cup, or go out of his way 
to patronize the place because he knows the coffee is always 
uniformly good? 

The coffee merchant should occupy the position of coun¬ 
sel and friend to the hotel and restaurant man. He should 
visit him frequently and make it his personal business to 
see that his instructions to the help are being carried out to 
the letter. Employees will grow lax in the essentials, and 
we know of no system that is fool proof. 

Freshly Roasted and Freshly Ground 

Having got the right blend, the coffee must be freshly 
roasted and ground just before making. No hotel or res¬ 
taurant can afford to use stale coffee. The grinder must 


176 


BREWING IN HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS 


be inspected regularly; not only must it be kept clean, but 
it needs to be watched to see that the fixed grind does not 
vary. Many coffee dealers have a special hotel and res¬ 
taurant service to look after these matters, but the customer 
should be urged to have several men in his employ that 
are familiar with all requirements, so that in the absence 
of the coffee chef nothing can go wrong. The use of a 
stale batch of coffee, a change in the grind, a mistake in 
measuring, some apparently trivial error, is likely to make 
for dissatisfaction in the cup, and the labor of years goes 
for naught. The patron is displeased, and his custom likely 
to be lost forever. 

Accuracy in measuring the amount of coffee to be brewed 
and the quantity of water are also important. It will pay 
to check up frequently on weights and measures, urns, 
leach bags, and other utensils, and to stress the importance 
of cleanliness in every operation. 

Coffee-Brewing Conclusions 

When we come to the actual making of the beverage, it 
is well to bear in mind the following brewing conclusions 
arrived at after much careful research by Professor Samuel 
C. Prescott of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology: 

1. Coffee should toe brewed with water at temperatures be¬ 
tween 185° P. and 200° P. Above this temperature decomposi¬ 
tions yielding bitter flavors take place, and mask to some degree 
the characteristic and delicate true coffee flavor. 

2. The time of contact of the ground coffee and the water 
should be brief. We have found the best results when this time 
period' did not exceed two to two and a half minutes. With long 
contacts, woody flavors are extracted from the bean, and bitter 
principles gradually pass into the solution. 

3. The coffee infusion should not come into contact with 
metals, but should be brewed and kept in glazed or vitrified con¬ 
tainers, such as porcelain, glass, or agateware. Even brief con¬ 
tacts with some metals yield pronounced bitter, astringent, or 
metallic flavors, due undoubtedly to the actual solution of and 
combination with minute amounts of the metal. 


177 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


4. Eighty to 85 percent of the total caffein is extracted in a 
contact of two minutes when all the grains of coffee are thor¬ 
oughly wetted. As coffee is an oily seed, it is necessary to have 
the water penetrate the superficial film of oil in order to emulsify 
it and to gain access to the other ingredients. Obviously, the 
small grains of a fairly fine grind will yield more dissolved ma¬ 
terial in a unit of time than if the coffee is coarsely ground. In 
the latter case, more coffee must be used to secure the same 
strength of infusion. 

5. Freshly roasted and freshly ground coffee yields a beverage 
far superior to that made from ground coffee which has been ex¬ 
posed to the air. Our results seem to indicate that under these 
conditions there is a loss of the volatile ethereal flavors, and pos¬ 
sibly an oxidation of the oils bringing about an incipient rancidity. 

Coffee Urns 

Of course, the ideal way to prepare coffee in hotels and 
restaurants would be to provide an individual service where 
the time of infusion would be under strict control; but this 
is not practical where large quantities of coffee “base” are 
required for quick service. To approximate the filtration 
or drip method, which experience has proved to be the best, 
resort must be had to coffee-making urns employing bags 
or paper or to the various rapid coffee-making devices on 
the market. The urn should have a liner of glazed earthen¬ 
ware or glass. If a cloth bag is used, it must be kept clean 
and immersed in cold water to prevent fouling when not in 
use. 

The use of paper presents the advantage of a clean new 
filter for each brew. Many hotels and restaurants now use 
a filter with a layer of fiber paper which can be renewed 
for each batch of coffee, This filter paper is put into a 
container which fits into the top of the urn. The bottom of 
the container is perforated to permit the coffee to drip 
through as it filters through the paper. Here are the rules 
prepared by the manufacturer of one of these devices: 

1. Put into the coffee urn all the boiling water required 
for the batch of coffee. 


178 


BREWING IN HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS 


2. Place the receptacle on top of this urn, with the coffee 
evenly distributed over the filter, having the entire sheet 
well covered with coffee. 

3. Fasten the water spreader over the coffee to keep it 
from floating. 

4. Transfer from the urn into the receptacle only as much 
boiled water as will fill it. 

It is contended that this method of making coffee is more 
convenient and more sanitary, since it does away with the 
necessity of handling and keeping the cloth filter bag clean. 
It also obviates the necessity of repouring, because the water 
cannot get into the urn below until it trickles through the 
ground coffee; whereas, with the drip-bag method a large 
part of the water comes through the sides of the bag without 
touching the coffee. Another advantage claimed for this 
method is that the coffee grounds are always suspended 
above the water and cannot stew in the brew. 

The method which gives the best results for hotel and 
restaurant custom of course depends upon the class of res¬ 
taurant and that restaurant’s type of trade; the kind of 
coffee used, the grind of the coffee, and the degree of roast¬ 
ing; also, the factors of whether the restaurant’s trade is 
relatively steady or spasmodic and the time of day at which 
it is intended to serve the coffee are points for considera¬ 
tion. The type of urn and coffee maker used are also deter¬ 
minative factors. 

In general, where the usual type of urn is employed, the 
coffee being made in a bag, and with coffee of the proper 
degree of fineness of grind and the proper intensity of roast, 
and where the trade to whom the coffee is to be dispensed 
is average, the following procedure may be recommended: 

Use two and a half gallons of boiling water to a pound 
of coffee, and after placing the coffee in the urn sack pour 
the boiling water through it, then repour the entire amount 
of liquid through the coffee once. If coarser coffee is used 
or the water is not boiling, further repouring is necessary. 


179 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


The urn bag and grounds should be removed from the urn 
20 to 30 minutes after the last repouring. Further con¬ 
tact of the grounds with the coffee liquor is likely to pro¬ 
mote extraction of undesirable elements and consequent de¬ 
terioration of the brew. 

It is essential that the urn sack be clean, that the coffee 
be fresh, the water be boiling, the water jacket of the urn 
be kept at approximately 220° to 210° Fahr., and the in¬ 
terior of the urn be kept religiously clean and sweet. Be¬ 
tween brews, the urn bag should be washed in cold water 
and kept immersed in cold water. Soap or any other 
cleanser should not be used for cleaning the bag. If these 
instructions be followed, a desirable brew of coffee is al¬ 
ways sure to result. It is not advisable to add egg, salt, 
butter, or vinegar, as seems to be the tendency in some res¬ 
taurants. 

How to Make Coffee in Hotels and Restaurants 

The Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee has pro¬ 
vided the following rules for making coffee in hotels and 
restaurants: 

1. 'See that you have a plentiful supply of fresh boiling water 
in hot-water urn. 

2. See that the gage shows plenty of water in jacket of coffee 
urn iand that it is at a temperature of 170° to 180°. The water 
in the jacket should not boil, because too much heat cooks the 
brewed coffee. 

3. Look inside coffee urn to see that it is in proper condition. 

4. See that leaching bag is clean and sweet. 

5. Put correct amount of dry coffee into leaching bag. 

6. Note that water in the hot-water urn is boiling, not only 
blowing off, but boiling hard, and that the water in the gage is 
moving up and down. 

7. Heat hot-water measure by rinsing with hot water. 

8. As rapidly as possible draw the correct number of measures 
of water and put through coffee; keep urn cover down between 
measures of water, and be careful not to pour water on fast 
enough so that it w r ill overrun top of bag in urn. 

9. At once repour coffee. Repour entire making; i. e., if water 


180 


BREWING IN HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS 


is five gallons, repour five gallons. If the coffee is ground suffi¬ 
ciently fine, one repouring should be enough. Repouring a second 
time to gain more “body” may make the brew bitter and sacrifice 
delicacy of flavor. 

10. Remove the leach bag with coffee grounds immediately after 
coffee making has been finished. 

11. Use only pure, unadulterated cream, iy 2 ounces to each 
cup. 

12. New leach bags must be washed in cool water to remove 
sizing before bags are put into use. Wash out bags immediately 
after removal from the urn, and keep them submerged in cool 
water when not in use. Renew bags frequently. 

13. Every 24 hours carefully clean inside of urns. Inspect and 
clean faucets frequently. 

Correct quantities of dry coffee to use per gallon : 

1 gal. water, use 10 oz. coffee 

2 « “ “ 18 

3 “ “ “ 22i/ 2 “ 

5 “ “ “ 37y 2 “ 

8 “ “ “ 60 

Never use hot water from jacket of urn in making coffee. 

Guess at nothing. 

That in all cases the water must be freshly boiled, should 
go without saying, yet it is just as well to dwell upon this 
point continually. 

A good grade of cream should be served with the drink, 
and particular care must be taken to have the service pots 
and the coffee cups warmed before using. 

Lists of manufacturers of coffee urns of all kinds, filters, 
coffee pots, etc., will be found in the latest edition of Ukers’ 
Tea & Coffee Buyer's Guide . 

Waldorf and Ambassador Style 

The method of preparing coffee for individual service in 
the Waldorf-Astoria, New York, which has been adopted 
by many first-class hotels and restaurants that do not serve 
urn-made coffee exclusively, is the French drip plus careful 
attention to all the contributing factors for making coffee 
in perfection, and is thus described by the hotel’s steward: 


181 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


A French-china drip coffee pot is used. It is kept in a warm 
heater, and, when the coffee is ordered, this pot is scalded with hot 
water. A level tablespoonful of coffee, ground to about the con¬ 
sistency of granulated sugar, is put into the upper and percolator 
part of the coffee pot. Fresh boiling water is then poured through 
the coffee and allowed to percolate into the lower part of the pot. 
The secret of success, according to our experience, lies in having 
the coffee freshly ground, and the water as near the boiling point 
as possible, all during the process. For this reason, the coffee pot 
should be placed on a gas stove or range. The quantity of coffee 
can be varied to suit individual taste. We use about 10 percent 
more ground coffee for after-dinner cups than we do for breakfast. 
Our coffee is a mixture of Old Government Java and Bogota. 

C. Scotty, chef at the Hotel Ambassador, New York, thus 
describes the method of making coffee in that hostelry: 

In the first place, it is essential that the coffee be of the finest 
quality obtainable; secondly, better results are obtained by using 
the French filterer, or coffee bag. 

Twelve ounces of coffee to one gallon of water for breakfast. 

Sixteen ounces of coffee to one gallon of water for dinner. 

Boiling water should be poured over the coffee, sifoned, and put 
back several times. We do not allow the coffee grounds to remain 
in the urn for more than 15 to 20 minutes at any time. 

The coffee service at the best hotels is usually in silver 
pots and pitchers, and includes the freshly made coffee, hot 
milk or cream (sometimes both), and domino sugar. 

Coffee-Making Directions 

With a desire to be helpful to the proprietors of hotels 
and restaurants wishing to improve their coffee service, the 
National Coffee Roasters Association published the follow¬ 
ing directions: 

Keep the urn, including faucets and' connections, scrupulously 
clean. ;Scour and scald daily. 'See that there is no leak from the 
water jacket. Glazed earthenware makes the best container for 
the brewed coffee. Avoid metal contact so far as possible, and if 
metal equipment is in touch with the coffee see that it is kept well 
tinned or otherwise protected from corrosion. 


\ 


182 


BREWING IN HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS 


Keep water in the water jacket very hot, but not boiling. Have 
the urn hot before brewing coffee. 

The bag which holds the ground coffee should be of fine enough 
mesh to hold the finest particles. 'Muddy or cloudy coffee means 
that grounds are in solution with the water—an inexcusable error. 

Use muslin of medium weight. Don’t use cheese cloth. For 
powdered coffee, use light canton flannel, “fuzzy” side in. 

Wash out new bags thoroughly, in hot or cold water, before 
using, to remove the starch sizing. 

The bag should not be deep enough to hang in the brewed coffee. 
The shape should be such as to allow a free penetration of water 
through the grounds. Do not use a bag too narrow or conical or 
one with sides reinforced with any material resistant to free flow 
of water. The result of letting water stand on the grounds is 
overdrawn coffee and a bitter flavor. 

Remove the bag immediately after the drip is finished, not more 
than 10 or 15 minutes after the last pouring. 

Never dry the drip bag. Rinse it thoroughly in cold water; 
never in hot water, which cooks in the coffee. Keep bag when not 
in use submerged in clean, cold water, which seals it from the air. 
Exposure to the air causes souring. Use new bags frequently. 

The water must be fresh ; must be boiling, at the top boiling 
point, before it is poured on the coffee. Water at the highest 
possible temperature is necessary for the most efficient extraction 
of flavor, aroma, and color. Coffee brewed at 212° Fahr. is 100 
percent efficient, compared with only 50 percent efficient, if the 
water is as low as 150° Fahr. 

Ground coffee loses strength rapidly, and should be kept in a 
closed' container as nearly air tight as possible. It is highly de¬ 
sirable that coffee be freshly ground as well as freshly roasted. 

There is no more important factor in good coffee making than 
the right grind. On this subject, however, opinions differ, and the 
restaurant manager who is interested in serving a perfect brew 
will do well to make a few experiments before deciding which 
degree of granulation to adopt. A coarse grind, such as that 
favored in households that stick to the old-fashioned boiling process 
and the medium granulation used in percolators are not suited to 
the restaurant urn. The principle of the drip method is to extract 
strength and flavor by a quick contact of grounds and boiling 
water. To get the best results, the bean must be well opened. 

Restaurant coffee, therefore, should be ground at least as fine 
as granulated sugar. Many dealers recommend a grind as fine as 
fine cornmeal, which shows a slight grit when rubbed between 


183 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


thumb and finger. The grind should not be so fine, however, as to 
mat and prevent the free penetration of water. 

Measure the water and measure or weigh the ground coffee 
carefully. Don’t guess. When you have found the right propor¬ 
tions, stick to them. The proportion of coffee is governed by the 
strength and color of the brew desired and by the grind used. 
Eight ounces of finely ground coffee, finer than fine granulated 
sugar and as fine as the cornmeal grind will produce one gallon of 
good, strong coffee. With a coarser grind, use 10 to 12 ounces. 
Allow about 20 percent for absorption of water by the grounds; 
for instance, five gallons of brewed coffee require six gallons of 
boiling water. 

Bear in mind that a partly filled bag will drip more quickly 
than one filled to its designed capacity. When brewing in smaller 
quantities, therefore, use more coffee in proportion to water. 

Pour water at highest possible temperature over the ground 
coffee in the drip bag. Never stir with a spoon or otherwise. If 
the bag is correct in material and shape and not filled with coffee 
over its designed capacity, there will be no congestion or standing 
of the water on the grounds. No agitation or mixing or cooking 
of water and grounds together is necessary to perfect and complete 
extraction. 

Some authorities maintain that one pouring is enough, if a very 
fine granulation is used and the water is at full boiling point. 
They declare that any repouring of the brewed liquor through the 
grounds extracts the bitter elements of the bean and injures the 
delicate coffee flavor. If the desired color and flavor do not result 
from the first pouring, three remedies are open,—one, use finer 
grind; two, use more coffee; three, repour. 

It may be necessary to resort to repouring if a grind coarser 
than fine cornmeal is used, because the bean may not have been 
broken into particles fine enough to let the water have access to all 
the cells in which are stored the aromatic oils upon which flavor 
depends. 

Fresh-brewed coffee is essential for best results. Brew as near 
the time of service as humanly possible. Don’t let the brew stand 
in the urn any longer than absolutely necessary. 

Serve coffee hot. Never allow the brew to get chilled either in 
the urn or after it is drawn. A perfect brew is frequently ruined 
by delayed service, cooling, and thereby losing flavor. Reheating 
will not restore lost flavor and aroma. 


184 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Day and Night Coffee Room of the Rice Hotel, Houston, Texas 































































































BREWING IN HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS 


The Successful Coffee Shop 

Mrs. Ida C. Bailey Allen, writing on the Sucessful Coffee 
Shop, makes the following suggestions on how to establish, 
equip, and conduct it: 

The successful coffee shop must he more than a place in which 
to eat and to enjoy 1 a perfect cup of coffee: it must be a place 
ruled by geniality and sociability, a pleasant place to spend a few 
moments of leisure. 

The coffee shop which furnishes perfect coffee and combines this 
rare atmosphere with quick and up-to-date service, and those 
homelike touches that irresistibly draw customers, is a profitable 
business venture and a landmark in the community. 

The success of the coffee shop depends largely upon the right 
location. Exactly what this may be hinges upon the locality and 
the type of patron. A coffee shop destined to cater to the needs 
of both men and women in the shopping section of a city would 
necessarily differ from a coffee shop in a village inn or on a good 
automobile road; yet both might be proportionately successful. 

In many cases, it will not be necessary to search for an entirely 
new location for the coffee shop, for there is often waste space in 
connection with a hotel or restaurant which can be used to good 
advantage. 

The large restaurant with rather formal service, desiring to 
make a quick and 1 speedy turnover, will find the institution of a 
small coffee shop, with a direct entrance on the street, a good 
investment. 

The hotel can easily make of the discarded barroom an excellent 
coffee shop, using in many instances some of the original furnish¬ 
ings. This will undoubtedly prove a very popular breakfast and 
luncheon room, especially for the men guests. 

The abandoned saloon, with its conspicuous street entrance, 
offers a wonderful opening for a coffee shop ; provided, the right 
atmosphere of geniality and cordiality is maintained. 

Many a wayside inn has held sacred for years an almost unused 
sitting room, while hungry automobiles, longing for a bite to eat, 
are led to a bare and unattractive dining room, where the “bite” is 
anything but good; and yet, the unused sitting room, located near 
the front entrance, could often be made into a most alluring little 
coffee shop, at almost no expense. 

Then there is the larger and more pretentions hotel, in which 
a coffee shop can often be installed in a little-used part of the 
lobby, where it is of easy access from the street. 


185 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

In still other cases there are •well-ventilated basement rooms 
which can be utilized for this purpose. In (fact, the coffee shop 
itself may be worked up in various ways to suit the space that 
can be allotted to it, as well as to meet the needs of the patron. 

The three types of coffee shop which may be developed are 
self service; counter service, with waitress or restaurant service; 
or combination of counter and waitress service. 

The Self-Service Method 

Obviously, when space as well as expense must be curtailed, the 
self-service method will prove most practicable. When there is more 
room, the counter method may be used, but when there is ample 
space, the waitress or restaurant method will prove most popular, 
if the service is speedy, and if, at the same time, the guests who 
have leisure are not hurried. 

The self-service coffee shop will succeed in a busy locality, where 
the clientele consists largely of people of limited means and leisure, 
both men and women. The counter service will be a success 
where the clientele consists only of men, who desire to obtain a 
quick meal at a moderate price. A man in a hurry depends more 
upon his coffee than anything else on the menu. In fact, the 
smaller the shop and the more limited the bill of fare, the greater 
the importance of coffee. The difference in cost between a cup of 
good coffee and a cup of bad coffee is so slight that no restaurant 
or lunch room can afford to serve the latter, however low his prices 
and humble his establishment. 

There is a great opportunity for the opening of the small coffee 
shop, in any business or manufacturing locality, where men may 
get a cup of coffee, a sandwich, a piece of pie, or some crullers 
in almost no time at all. This idea has been very successfully 
carried out with the installation of built-in stands, from which 
iced summer drinks have been sold, but it should prove equally 
popular with coffee,—iced coffee, coffee sodas, and hot coffee in the 
summer time, and hot coffee and coffee sodas in the winter. 

The initial outlay can be very small, the rental for such stands 
being very reasonable. The dishes and knives, forks, and spoons 
may be of moderately good quality, but durable; the greatest out¬ 
lay being for the coffee urn, a two-burner gas stove for the frying of 
eggs for fried-egg sandwiches, and a small counter with or without 
stools. Needles to say, the place should be spotlessly clean, an 
all-white effect appealing to everyone. 

Such a place is 'best handled' by men, who should wear white. 
Menus are not necessary, but it is a good plan to change the type 


186 


BREWING IN HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS 


of sandwiches and the kind of pie from day to day, to avoid 
monotony. A fortune awaits the man who can establish such 
places in a large city, in time developing a chain which might ex¬ 
tend over a large territory. This type of coffee shop, properly 
run, means a good living to the person who has foresight and 
business ability enough to put it through. 

The backbone of a coffee shop is coffee—'and still more coffee. 
It must be a perfect beverage, the kind that leaves a glow of satis¬ 
faction and invariably calls back the guest again and again. The 
coffee must be so good and the service so excellent that men and 
women will not only drop in, with reasonable regularity, at meal¬ 
time, but will avail themselves of the quiet sociability of the place 
for morning conferences over the coffee cups, and a mid-afternoon 
“bite” with coffee—hot or iced as the season may suggest. 

There is still another element entering into the type of coffee 
shop to be inaugurated,—the help. In a large city, where this 
problem is not so perplexing, the waitress type of service can be 
carried out successfully; but, where waitresses are difficult to 
secure, it will be necessary to use either the counter or the self- 
service method. Also, when prices must be comparatively low, it 
w ill not be practicable to use the waitress method, as this increases 
the overhead to such an extent that the profits will be unduly de¬ 
creased. 

The coffee shop itself is such an adaptable sort of eating place 
that it can be made equally attractive for both rich and poor,— 
just as popular in a first-class hotel as it is when conducted rightly 
in a factory. This is the reason that the locality, the type of help, 
and the sort of service must be absolutely mapped out before the 
actual gathering together of the equipment is considered. 

Details of the Menu 

As the equipment depends largely upon the menu that is to be 
provided, the latter must be outlined in general before the equip¬ 
ment is purchased. The menu should be of a suitable type to cor¬ 
respond with the kind of coffee shop that is being opened, and 
must be made to fit the probable needs and' pocket-books of the 
patrons. 

The first item to be thought of in connection with the menu is 
coffee, and ample provision must be made to serve it to the very 
best advantage, for it is really the foundation of the entire enter¬ 
prise. The foods to be served must be of a nature that will com¬ 
bine well in a meal with coffee. 

In case a coffee shop is being opened for very simple service in 

187 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


any locality, and if the amount of money that may be spent for 
equipment is limited, it will be found most practicable to include 
largely cold foods on the menu, merely making provision for the 
cookery of eggs in a few simple ways, to accommodate breakfast 
patrons. 

A simple menu begun in such a comparatively small way, 
backed up by the right service and excellent coffee, will invariably 
result in quick expansion into a larger business. Such a menu 
might include the following dishes: Sandwiches, cold meats, salads, 
pastry and cake, icecream, coffee. 

The menu should be changed from week to week, no matter what 
type is used, in order to give sufficient variety to encourage guests 
to come over and over again. A suitable menu of this type for the 
fall and winter season might include: Ham sandwiches, minced 
ham sandwiches, sliced chicken sandwiches, chicken salad sand¬ 
wiches, egg sandwiches, egg salad sandwiches, club sandwiches, 
cheese sandwiches, pimento cream cheese and lettuce sandwiches. 

The salads should, as far as possible, be of a different nature 
from the salad sandwiches, as so many guests will order a salad 
and a sandwich, together with a pot of coffee. A suitable group 
of salads would include: A Jish salad, such as shrimp, lobster, or 
tuna fish; egg salad, with Russian dressing or mayonnaise ; lettuce 
and tomato salad, with Roquefort dressing; chicken salad; potato 
salad; cold slaw, occasionally varied with green peppers, chopped 
nuts, or pimentos; a seasonable vegetable salad. If possible, hot, 
home-made Parker-house rolls or little tea biscuits may be served 
with the salads. If it is not feasible to keep these really hot, and 
if the bread is to be included in the salad course, bread and butter 
sandwiches will prove the most economical adjunct from the stand¬ 
point of both materials and service. 

The cold meats should include: Sliced ham, served with a little 
chowchow, or other suitable relish, in an individual paper cup; 
cold fried chicken or sliced chicken ; cold tongue; and occasionally 
cold roast lamb or roast beef. 

It may sometimes be advisable, if there is a place to keep the 
roast hot, to serve hot meat sandwiches occasionally, as roast beef, 
lamb, or chicken sandwiches, with gravy, utilizing the remainder 
of the roast for cold meat on the succeeding day. 

To be at its best, a coffee shop should incorporate homy, rather 
than exotic, cookery, to correspond with its warm, inviting, and 
simple surroundings. 

Who would not go a long way for a perfect piece of apple pie, 
with a bit of rare-flavored cheese and a pot of perfect coffee? So, 


188 


BREWING IN HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS 


let the pastries, again, be varied, in order to avoid monotony ; but 
keep them homelike. 

Apple pie, pumpkin or squash pie, or sweet potato pie (in the 
iSouth), a lemon pie with a thick meringue, custard or well made 
coconut pie, old-fashioned cream pie, the newer butter-scotch pie, 
together with the full gamut of fruit pies, such as orange, huckle¬ 
berry, blackberry, rhubarb, pineapple, cranberry, raisin, and all the 
others, certainly afford a wide choice. But have them perfect! As 
to crullers and coffee cake itself, they should be so good as to be¬ 
come specialties. These will attract guests from miles around, for 
the inevitable pot of coffee with these incomparable accompani¬ 
ments. 

Good home-made cookies should also be included. Old-fashioned 
ginger drop cookies “with a raisin in the center,” and thick cream 
cookies sprinkled with sugar before baking, will surely become 
famous. As to old-fashioned ginger bread, served with good butter, 
cheese, or whipped cream, it will be in favor winter or summer as 
a combination with coffee. 

The cakes, too, should be strictly home-made and very much of 
a specialty. If there is but one kind, have it good. Nut cakes 
with thick white icing, fudge cake with fudge frosting, layer spice 
cake with a made cream filling, and rich marble cake offer a few 
good suggestions. Keep the cake out of the ordinary: it’s sure to 
mean “talk,” the best kind of advertising. 

Regarding the icecream in a small coffee shop, one or two kinds 
will be ample. Of course, coffee icecream will always be served. 
This can be made into a variety of sundaes, such as marshmallow 
nut, coffee sundae, coffee butter-scotch sundae, coffee caramel sun¬ 
dae, and coffee maraschino sundae. A second cream would 
naturally be vanilla, which might be served as a sundae with a 
delicious coffee sauce, coffee nut sauce, or a maple sauce, with a 
topping of coffee whipped cream. In other words, emphasize the 
coffee flavor: it’s the best stock in trade that a coffee shop can 
have. 

This menu will take care of the luncheon and slipper trade, of 
the mid-morning “bite,” and the afternoon and late evening 
“snack.” With the addition of fresh fruit in season, ready-cooked 
cereals, such as corn flakes, etc., toast, of boiled, poached, and 
scrambled eggs, and marmalade and honey served in individual 
jars, the variety of foods will be increased sufficiently to cover 
breakfast, even though the serving equipment is limited. If space 
permits, the equipment may be enlarged and the list may include 
pancakes with sirup, and blueberry pancakes in season, as well as 


189 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


waffles. However, in cooking foods of this type, great care must 
be taken to provide for proper ventilation. If there is ample pro¬ 
vision for the carrying off of cooking fumes, bacon and ham may be 
served along with fried eggs and omelets. 

Basis for More Elaborate Service 

This simple skeleton menu may serve as a basis for the develop¬ 
ment of one that is more elaborate and adapted to any of the three 
types of coffee shops. To it may be added one or two soups, one 
of a clear variety, such as consomme, tomato bouillon, clam 
bouillon, clear vegetable soup, chicken soup with rice, etc., and a 
heavier soup, such as cream of pea, cream of celery, oyster stew, 
or a chowder. If there is ample provision for order cooking, 
steaks, chops, etc., may be offered on a menu. 

In any case, whether these are served or not, a certain number 
of special substantial dishes should be included on the menu, the 
selection depending on the clientele and the facilities for keeping 
the specials hot. They should be decidedly substantial if men are 
the only guests, but, when men and women both patronize the 
coffee shop, some of the specials should be of rather dainty nature. 
If, for instance, only two specials were to be run, and the catering 
is to both men and women, a choice might be breaded veal cutlets 
with tomato sauce and mashed potatoes, or chicken patties with 
peas. A group of staple specials of a substantial nature might in¬ 
clude broiled pork chops with mashed potatoes and baked apples ; 
stewed chicken with dumplings; hot tongue with spinach and 
horse-radish sauce; beef cutlets with spaghetti-Italian, etc. 

Suitable dainty specials might be escalloped oysters with dressed 
lettuce, veal loaf with buttered rice and brown gravy, chicken & la 
king, eggs au gratin, w r elsh rabbit (made with milk and served on 
toast), etc. 

Any menu increased beyond this point must take on the charac¬ 
teristics of a regulation restaurant, with perfect coffee as a back¬ 
ground. In this case, the 'equipment must of a necessity be quite 
elaborate, as provision must be made for the preparation of a 
goodly number of dishes to order, as well as of roasts, vegetables, 
etc. 

The menu served in the famous coffee shops of England includes, 
besides the usual staple sandwiches, salads, pastry, and coffee, all 
kinds of egg dishes, cereals, fruits, toast, marmalade, honey, and 
hot breads at breakfast. Both the noon and night specials are 
of heavy nature, including roasts, steaks, chops; baked, French- 
fried, and boiled potatoes; a special beefsteak pie a la Dr. John- 


190 


BREWING IN HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS 


son, or a veal and ham pie; kidney, pigeon, or chicken pie. A 
snappy salad is always provided, such as onion and pepper or 
tomato with Roquefort dressing, and there are plenty of plain 
vegetables, such as buttered carrots, fried onions, stewed marrow, 
etc. 

The desserts would include deep-dish fruit tarts, cheese cake, 
and always plum pudding, and a special, as a fruit dumpling, 
bread and custard pudding, or something of like nature. Of all 
eating places, the coffee shop should spell comfort, and there must 
be a sufficient number of well-cooked simple foods to correspond 
with this purpose. 

The Kitchen Arrangements 

The small coffee shop of self-service type, or of the type that 
combines self service with a few tables, can be worked out success¬ 
fully with the aid of only a small kitchen, as there will be few 
foods cooked to order and almost no last-minute preparation. Rut 
the coffee shop serving a number of specials must have a comfort¬ 
able kitchen, with sufficient space in which to prepare the food, 
and a short-order range, that is certainly not in full view of the 
patron, for the coffee shop must present a restful atmosphere. It 
should not appear too new, too glaring, or sanitary looking to a 
startling extent. As far as possible, what one might term the ma¬ 
chinery of cooking should be kept out of sight. 

In the kitchen will be needed an adequate range to burn the fuel 
best obtainable in the locality, a short-order range, a work table 
of the right height for the cook, a small room or a good-sized 
pantry for the pastry-cooking equipment, and, in case a large 
amount of pastry is being prepared, an adequate set of bake ovens 
should be installed 1 . There must be an icebox of the right size, 
with sections, accessible to both cook and pastry cook. Dishes 
should be washed and stored near the entrance to the dining room, 
so that when they are delivered to the dish washer the carry will 
not be long, and so that they may be stored where they are washed 
and dried, ready for service. 

The time has gone by when it is desirable from the viewpoint of 
the patron, as well as from the standard of good taste, to display 
large quantities of food. Groups of foods, properly assembled in 
tightly closed glass cases, may sometimes be used to good advan¬ 
tage when counter service is employed. The actual food that is 
served 1 , however, will be obtained from another room. In case a 
barroom has been fitted over into a coffee shop, the back bar may 
be used for such display, if desired. 


191 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


If the cafeteria method of service is adopted, there will be, of 
course, no food prepared in the restaurant proper. In this case, 
the 'equipment must include an adequate steam table and serving 
counter, on which the food may be assembled. 

The menu should be clearly displayed on the wall in such posi¬ 
tion that the guests will not crowd in front of it and thereby 
upset the serving arrangements. 

The silver, trays, etc., as well as the foods, should be assembled 
in their natural order of use; first, the trays and napkins, then the 
silver, water, and water glasses, followed by soups, hot “specials,” 
vegetables and meats, the breads, salads, desserts, and coffee. 

It goes without saying that the coffee-making equipment should 
be the 'best that can be obtained. “Best” does not always mean 
the most costly, for adequate coffee-making equipment is always 
simple in design, so that it may be kept clean, the absolute clean¬ 
liness of all utensils used in the making being one of the funda¬ 
mentals underlying the preparation of perfect coffee. 

Suitable urns, provided with leach or drip bags, may be Obtained 
from about $65 upward, according to size. Cup warmers should 
be provided. The coffee itself should be served with cream, real 
cream, which should be put in by the patron; not served ready 
mixed, as so many prefer black coffee. 

In some instances, it may be necessary, because of shortage of 
space, to prepare some of the food in the dining room. In this 
case, the equipment must be kept in perfect condition and the cook 
be spotless—'literally 1 —from head to foot. An adequate gas or 
electric griddle, gas or electric waffle iron, egg boiler, and well- 
scoured aluminum cooking utensils are an absolute necessity. 
Sometimes it will be necessary to install a short-order range in 
this room, as well. The cook must also be taught to work quietly. 
Much of the noise in many restaurants may be traced to the care¬ 
lessness' of the waitresses and other employees in the handling of 
dishes and utensils. 

Serving the Food 

First of all, the service must be pleasant. There is no one thing 
—other than perfect cooking itself—which brings a guest back 
over and over again, more than a smile and a well-chosen word of 
greeting. In several well-known restaurants, home economics 
graduates are employed to act as hostesses. The guests are then 
seated 1 by a well-trained head waitress, who is quiet and efficient. 

This idea could well be applied to the coffee shop, but the pro¬ 
fessional hostess should not be ultrafashionable: rather, middle- 


192 


BREWING IN HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS 


aged, comely, and wholesome in appearance. For waitresses, 
choose comfortable, homy-looking women, and dress them in simple 
uniforms of natural linen color, with white aprons. 

In case cafeteria or counter-style service is used, the same 
natural linen-color scheme for uniforms may be carried out. It 
must be kept in mind that the person in charge of the cafeteria 
can often be a very deft salesman as w'ell, helping guests w’ho are 
undecided as to their choice of food to make a selection extremly 
profitable to the restaurant and—if the food is as perfect as it 
ought to be—to the individual. A good waitress can be trained to 
be as clever in this line as a maitre dhotel. It would well pay the 
proprietor to have a little talk occasionally with his employees on 
salesmanship. 

If the guests are seated at tables, they should be handed menus 
as soon as they are settled. A glass of water, a napkin, and the 
silver for each guest should' then be put immediately upon the table 
by an underwaitress. The guest then feels that he is getting im¬ 
mediate attention, and his order can be taken as soon as possible 
by one of the regular waitresses, a highly trained person, who, if 
relieved from the burden of the water glasses, silver, replenishing 
of butter, water, etc., can practically handle double the amount of 
usual trade. 

In case of cafeteria service, no waitresses will be needed, except 
women to gather up the soiled dishes from the tables as fast as 
they accumulate. The crumbs should then be brushed off, but not 
on to the floor, then the table should be wiped clean. Insufficient 
observation of these two little items alone keeps many a fastidious 
guest from eating in a cafeteria. 

Atmosphere of the Shop 

Coffee shops may be developed in appearance in two ways,—the 
very up-to-date white porcelain and nickel, with its expensive and 
sanitary equipment, or it may be made a place of atmosphere, of 
quiet and restful appearance, by the proper utilization of decora¬ 
tions and furnishings that one might term “seasoned looking.” At 
the same time, the furnishings should be so simple that they may 
be kept spotlessly clean. 

There is no more attractive background for the coffee shop than 
the old English type. Panels may extend from the ceiling to the 
floor, or a high wiainscot only may be used, topped by a plate rail 
with the wall decorated in coffee color, from the plate rail to the 
ceiling. Well chosen English prints may be hung on a plain back¬ 
ground. Pieces of old Wedgewood, dull copper pitchers, and 


193 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


platters in old willow design may be on the plate rail. There 
should be 'a rack of “grandfather’s pipes,” an old eight-day dock, 
and if possible a .fireplace with a crane and a fire in cool weather. 

The curtains at the windows 1 —which should be, if possible, of 
the casement type—may be of some washable, rather dark, natural 
linen-colored material, and plain, old-fashioned red geraniums 
should be in the window boxes. 

The tables should .be bare save for a small center square of 
rather dark, linen-colored material. The napkins should match. 
The chairs should, of course, match the tables, and the floor should 
be finished in a dark tone, to harmonize with the furniture. 

Settles, if dtesired, may line the sides of the room, a table being 
put before each settle, with two chairs on the opposite side, or 
stalls, with tables accommodating four, may be used in part of the 
room, with well-disposed tables and chairs to fill the remaining 
space. 

As far as feasible, the entire equipment should savor of the old- 
fashioned. China, of the English willow-ware pattern, may be 
obtained anywhere. Silver of plain design should be used, and, 
if possible, steel-bladed, horn-handled knives should be used with 
the meat service. 

Menus of a design to correspond with the decorations should be 
planned. Nothing can be better than rough, dull-finished paper, of 
linen color, with rough cut edges, and the printing in dark brown. 
In case a list of the “specials” is not printed each day, it may be 
written or typed on to the menu. The menu itself should be 
changed from time to time, in order to make the standing dishes 
seasonable. It is a good plan to include on the menu some short 
and interesting quotations about coffee from well-known people. 
If a little care and thought are expended in making the cards unique 
and interesting, guests will frequently ask for them as souvenirs.— 
an excellent advertisement. 

If rent is not a big item, it will prove a good plan to have an 
informal lounging and game room, opening out of the coffee shop. 
The decorations should be of the same type as those in the shop 
itself. Comfortable tables and chairs should be provided, and 
there should be an abundance of games accessible, such as 
checkers, parches!, chess, and the like, as well as a table with 
current magazines, a low case of interesting book® of short stories, 
a desk with letterheads (featuring the coffee shop) and, if there is 
ample room, a pool table. 

Tables should bear menus, featuring coffee, and a few of the 
lighter dishes that would naturally accompany it, for refreshments 


194 


BREWING IN HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS 


suitable for afternoon and evening. Of course smoking should be 
allowed. 

Whatever type of coffee shop may be chosen, a candy and cigar 
counter should be stationed near the entrance door: not the or¬ 
dinary candy counter, but one featuring coffee candies, which are 
put up for sale in little 10- and 15-cent coffee-colored bags, or 
which may be obtained in larger quantity in coffee-colored boxes, 
bearing the trademark of the coffee shop. The candies should be 
somewhat of an old-fashioned type, as coffee butter scotch, coffee 
molasses taffy, chocolate coffee creams, coffee pralines, and so on. 
The bags, in nine cases out of 10, will be emptied of their con¬ 
tents in the street or office, and each bag that is thrown down will 
act as an advertisement of the coffee shop, and each coffee-colored 
box tied with its coffee-colored ribbon will serve as a reminder to 
the passerby, who sees it on its way home to the wife or to sweet¬ 
heart, of the shop around the corner where there is such delicious 
food, and where the internationally loved beverage may be obtained 
in perfection. 



195 


CHAPTER XVI 


PRODUCTION AND CONSUMP¬ 
TION OF COFFEE 

A statistical study of world production and consump¬ 
tion of coffee by countries — Coffee in the United 
States—The trend of the trade in 1923 — Brazil's 
coffee valorization. 

L EAVES and beans are the vegetable sources of the 
world’s three great non-alcoholic beverages,—tea, 
coffee, and cocoa. Of the three, tea leaves lead in total 
amount consumed, coffee beans are second, and cacao beans 
are a distant third, although advancing. 

But in international commerce coffee beans occupy a far 
more important position than either of the others, being im¬ 
ported into non-producing countries to twice the extent of the 
tea leaves. All three enjoy world-wide consumption, although 
this consumption does not extend to every nation. Where 
either coffee beans or tea leaves have thoroughly established 
themselves in a given country, the other two of the beverages 
receive comparatively little attention, and usually have a good 
deal of difficulty in making any appreciable advance. Cacao 
beans, on the other hand, have not risen to the position of 
popular favorite in any important consuming country, and 
so have not aroused the opposition of their two important 
rivals. 

These three beverages dominate the world’s breakfast, 
dinner, and supper tables, and have no serious competitor 
except in one or two restricted localities. Down in South 
America, millions of people drink yerba mate in preference 
to any other beverage, whether containing alcohol or not, but 
efforts to push it on the markets of the United States and 
Europe have met with only limited success. 


197 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


During the war, many substitutes for the three standard 
beverages were concocted, and on account of high prices 
some of them may still be used here and there, but none of 
them offers any serious competition to the regular trade. 
The world seems pretty well satisfied with the beverages it 
has tried out for so many centuries, and any new table drink 
that comes along will have to be meritorious indeed to take 
its place alongside them. 

Of the three, the oldest dominates the most territory, and 
the youngest in point of world-wide reputation covers the 
least. 

The beginnings of tea drinking are lost in the vista of 
Chinese history; but, whatever its age, it is today in very 
vigorous commercial health. Tea is the favorite drink of 
what a few years ago were the three greatest empires, geo¬ 
graphically speaking, of the world,—the Chinese, Russian, 
and British Empires. It is estimated that the Chinese alone 
consume some 2,000,000,000 pounds of tea a year, thus 
elevating it to first place in amount used, although much 
more coffee than tea passes from producing to consuming 
countries. 

Coffee reigns over the United States and western conti¬ 
nental Europe, particularly France, Belgium, Netherlands, 
Germany, Switzerland, and Scandinavia, as well as South 
Africa, Cuba, and southern South America. 

With regard to cocoa, the trade figures do not tell so dis¬ 
tinct a story, as the raw material from which the cocoa 
powder is made, the cacao beans and nibs, is also used so 
extensively in the making of chocolate and chocolate products. 
But the annual trade in cacao beans is so large in several 
countries that cocoa as a beverage probably takes second 
place among the three. 

Where Coffee Rules 

In its 300 years of acquaintance with civilized countries, 
coffee has planted itself firmly in North and South America, 


198 


PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE 


Australasia, and western Europe, but in that vast stretch 
of territory beginning with western Russia and extending over 
almost the whole of Asia it is little known. 

Among the western nations the United Kingdom stands 
out as a conspicuous example of countries that refuse to be 
conquered by coffee, and the dominions, with one exception, 
have followed the taste of the mother country. The exception 
is the Union of South Africa, where the settlers have shown 
the same adherence to the habits of the country from which 
they came as the settlers of English-speaking dependencies, 
as the large coffee consumption is due to the presence of the 
Boers, descendants of the coffee-drinking Hollanders. 

Among southern countries Argentina is the chief coffee 
buyer, with Chile second; but the island of Cuba passes both 
in individual consumption, ranking alongside the United 
States in that respect. 

Percapita Coffee Consumption 

The following table gives the percapita consumption of 
coffee in the last year before the war and in a recent year 
since the war, for the important coffee-drinking countries of 
the world. The figures are based entirely on statistics of im¬ 
ports and exports, and do not take into account any stocks 
that may have been held over: 

Postwar 



t 

T*-\ 

1913 


Year 

Pounds 

Pounds 

United States . 

. 1923 

12.45 

8.90b 

Canada . 

. 1922 

2.40 

2.17c 

Newfoundland . 

. 1920a 

0.19 

0.19 

United Kingdom . 

. 1922 

0.74 

0.61 

Prance . 

. 1922 

9.83 

6.41 

Spain . 

. 1920 

2,33 

1.64 

Portugal . 

. 1919 

0.86 

1.16 

Belgium . 

. 1922 

11.01 

12.27 

Holland . 

. 1922 

10.49 

18.80 

Denmark . 

. 1921 

13.19 

12.85 


a Fiscal year, b Fiscal year 1913. c Fiscal year ending March 31, 1914. 

199 














COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Postwar 

1913 

- 

Year . 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Norway . 

. ' 1922 

14.76 

12.29 

Sweden . 

. 1922 

12.96 

13.41 

Finland .. .. 

. 1921 

8.25 

8.85 

Russia . 

. 1910 

0.05 

0.16 

Austria-Hungary . 

. 1917 

0.34 

2.54 

Germany . 

. 1922 

1.35 

5.43 

Rumania . 

. 1919 

0.29 

1.04 

Greece . 

. 1920 

2.97 

1.19 

Switzerland . 

. 1921 

8.17 

6.48 

Italy . 

. 1922 

2.68 

1.79 

Egypt . 

. 1921 

1.53 

1.15 

Union of South Africa 

. 1922 

4.44 

4.19d 

Ceylon . 

. 1920 

0.43 

0.36 

•China . 

. 1920 

0.001 

0.01 . 

Japan . 

. 1920 

0.01 

0.004 

Cuba . 

. 1920a 

13.79 

10.00 

Argentina . 

. 1919 

4.40 

3.74 

Chile . 

. 1920 

3.06 

3.04 

Uruguay . 

. 1921 

3.61 

e 

Paraguay . 

. 1920 

0.26 

e 

Australia . 

. 1920a 

0.42 

0.64 

New Zealand . 

. 1920 

0.24 

0.29 

a Fiscal year, d Based 

on population figure 

including both 

white and 


colored, e Figures not available. 


On account of the wide fluctuations in imports during the 
war and the period following the war, percapita figures have 
naturally changed radically during recent years; but, for 
the most part, the trade in coffee has about swung back to 
normal, and the percapita figures since the war, as given, 
are fairly close to prewar figures. As percapita calculations 
must take into account population as well as amounts of 
coffee consumed, and as population figures are usually esti¬ 
mates, the results arrived at by different authorities are 
likely to vary slightly, although usually they are not far 
apart. 


200 


























PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE 


Coffee in the United States 

The rise of the United States as a coffee consumer dur¬ 
ing the last century and a quarter has been marked not only 
by steadily increased imports, but also by a steady growth 
in percapita consumption. Today it is close to its highest 
point, the 12.45 pounds being enough to supply each man, 
woman, and child with some 500 cups a year. This is four 
times as much as it was 100 years ago, and more than twice 
as much as in the years immediately following the Civil 
War. Since about 1897, the average consumption percapita 
has increased some 50 percent. Net imports in the year 
ended December 31, 1923, covering only continental United 
States, were 1,407,855,966 pounds. 

The United Kingdom 

Coffee drinking has never become popular in the British 
Isles, and there is no sign that the English taste is chang¬ 
ing. Present consumption percapita, in fact, is lower than 
it was 40 years ago. Consumption and percapita figures 
for the last six years and for 1913 are as follows: 

Imports 

for Home Percapita 
Consumption, Consumption, 


Pounds Pounds 

1913 . 28,000,000 0.61 

1917 . 28,784,000 1.02 

1918 . 47,264,000 1.19 

1919 . 51,072,000 0.76 

1920 . 35,280,000 0.74 

1921 . 34,363,000 0.72 

1922 . 35,181,530 0.74 


This low consumption is because tea is the universal 
beverage in the United Kingdom. 

The Two Countries Compared 
The following comparison of the growth of percapita con¬ 
sumption of tea and coffee in the United Kingdom and the 
United States will show that the attitude of the public toward 


201 









COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


the two beverages has been directly opposite for 58 years: 

United States United Kingdom 



Coffee 

Tea 

Coffee 

Tea 


Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1866 . 

. 4.96 

1.17 

1.02 

3.42 

1870 . 

. 6.00 

1.10 

.98 

3.81 

1875 . 


1.44 

.98 

4.44 

1880 . 

. 8.78 

1.39 

.92 

4.57 

1885 . 

. 9.60 

1.18 

.91 

5.06 

1890 .. .. 

. 7.77 

1.32 

.75 

5.17 

1895 . 

. 9.24 

1.39 

.70 

5.65 

1900 . 

. 9.84 

1.09 

.71 

6.07 

1901 . 

. 10.43 

1.12 

.76 

6.16 

1902 .. 


.92 

.68 

6.07 

1903 . 

. 10.80 

1.27 

.71 

6.04 

1904 . 

. 11.67 

1.31 

.68 

6.02 

1905 . 

. 11.98 

1.19 

.67 

6.02 

1906 .. 

. 9.72 

1.06 

.66 

6.22 

1907 . 

. 11.15 

.96 

.67 

6.26 

1908 . 

. 9.82 

1.03 

.66 

6.24 

1909 . 

. 11.43 

1.24 

.67 

6.37 

1910 .. 

. 9.33 

.89 

.65 

6.39 

1911 . 

. 9.29 

1.05 

.62 

6.47 

1912 . 


1.04 

.61 

6.46 

1913 . 

. 8.90 

.96 

.61 

6.64 

1914 . 

. 10.14 

.91 

.63 

6.89 

1915 . 

. 10.62 

.91 

.71 

6.87 

1916 . 

. 11.20 

1.07 

1.66 

6.56 

1917 .. .. 

. 12.38 

.99 

1.02 

6.03 

1918 .. 

. 10.43 

1.40 

1.19 

6.75 

1919 . 

. 9.13 

.87 

.76 

8.43 

1920 . 

. 12.78 

.84 

.74 

8.51 

1921 . 

. 12.13 

.65 

.71 

8.2 

1922 .. 

. 10.97 

.76 

.74 

8.6 

1923 . 

. 12.45 

.94 

.74 

8.6 


In France 

Second only to the United States in the total of coffee con¬ 
sumed is France, although that country before the war occu¬ 
pied third place, being surpassed by Germany. Havre is 
one of the great coffee ports of Europe, and has a coffee 


202 

































PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE 


exchange; organized in 1882, only a short time after the 
exchange in New York began operations. 

France draws on all the large producing regions for her 
coffee, but is especially prominent in the trade in the West 
Indies and the countries around the Caribbean Sea, Imports 
in 1922 amounted to 385,475,860 pounds, exports to 445,- 
940 pounds, and net consumption to 385,029,920 pounds. 

In Germany 

Hamburg is one of the world’s important coffee ports, and 
in normal times coffee is brought there in vast amounts, not 
only for shipment into the interior of Germany, but also for 
transhipment to Scandinavia, Finland, and Russia. Up to 
the outbreak of the war, Germany was the chief coffee-drink¬ 
ing country of Europe. While the blockade lasted and coffee 
imports were quite shut off, the Germans resorted to sub¬ 
stitutes, and after the war, because of high prices, there was 
still much consumption of them. 

Percapita consumption in Germany is still somewhat low 
in comparison with prewar consumption. In 1920 only 
90,602,000 pounds were imported. In 1921 net imports 
were 228,687,567 pounds, but in 1922 they fell off to 80,- 
992,595 pounds. This of course is not comparable with pre¬ 
war consumption, as Germany’s territory and population are 
considerably smaller than before the war. In 1913, the 
country as then constituted imported 371,130,520 pounds and 
exported 1,783,521 pounds, leaving a net consumption of 
369,346,999 pounds. 

Netherlands 

Netherlands is one of the oldest coffee countries of Europe, 
and for centuries has been a great transhipping agent, dis¬ 
tributing coffee from her East Indian possessions and from 
America among her northern neighbors. Before sending 
these coffee shipments along, however, she kept back enough 
to supply her own people most plentifully, so that for many 
years before the war she led the world in percapita consump- 


203 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


tion. As far back as 1867-76, coffee consumption was 
averaging over 13 pounds percapita; in the year before the 
war, it was 18.8 pounds. 

The blockade and other abnormal conditions during the 
war threw the trade off, and it is not yet normal. Consump¬ 
tion in 1920 was 96,197,000 pounds, or about 14 pounds 
percapita. However, preliminary figures for 1921 showed a 
much heavier reexportation than in 1920, and a consequent 
drop in consumption. Imports in 1921 were 136,566,943 
pounds and exports 66,567,702, leaving 69,999,241 pounds 
for consumption. This drop in consumption is probably 
more apparent than real, as exports in 1921 doubtless in¬ 
cluded much coffee held over from the year before. Net im¬ 
ports for 1922 were 73,203,743 pounds, or 10.49 pounds 
percapita. Eighty percent of the Netherlands coffee trade 
is handled through Amsterdam. 

Coffee in Other Countries 

Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are all heavy coffee drink¬ 
ers. In 1921, Sweden had the highest percapita consump¬ 
tion in the world, 15.25 pounds. Before the war these three 
countries each consumed about as much percapita as the 
United States does today,—amounting to 11 to 13 pounds 
a year. 

The 1922 net imports for consumption were as follows: 
Denmark, 50,906,680 pounds; Norway, 39,015,680 pounds; 
Sweden, 77,343,640 pounds. 

Austria-Hungary was formerly an important buyer of 
coffee, large quantities coming into the country yearly 
through Triest. Imports in 1913 totaled 130,951,000 
pounds, and 124,527,000 pounds in 1912. In 1917, the war 
cut down the total to 17,910,000 pounds’ net consumption. 
Imports for consumption in 1922 were 9,588,260 pounds. 

Finland shares with her neighbors of the Baltic a strong 
taste for coffee, importing 30,459,880 pounds in 1922. 

In the same year Belgium had a net import of 82,324,000 


204 


PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE 


pounds and Spain of 41,131,640 pounds. Portugal, in 1919, 
imported 6,926,575 pounds and exported 1,258,271 pounds, 
leaving 5,668,304 pounds for home consumption. Coffee is 
not especially popular in the Balkan States and Italy, im¬ 
portations into the last-named country in 1922 amounting 
to 103,961,000 pounds net. Switzerland is a steady coffee 
drinker, consuming 29,182,560 pounds in 1922. 

Russia was never fond of coffee, and her total imports in 
1917, according to Soviet figures, were only 4,464,000 pounds. 

The Union of South Africa in 1922 imported 8,991,400 
pounds net. Cuba purchased 66,342,540 pounds in the fiscal 
year 1922, Argentina 38,727,040 pounds in 1920, and Chile 
10,252,220 pounds in 1922. Australia, in the year 1921-22, 
imported 3,100,120 pounds, and New Zealand in 1921 im¬ 
ported 250,580 pounds. 

Coffee Consumption of Brazil 

In considering the world consumption of coffee, usually 
only importing countries are taken into account; but there 
is, of course, considerable consumption in countries where the 
coffee is grown. In the largest of these, Brazil, there is a 
population loosely estimated at 20,000,000 to 30,000,000, 
and the habit of coffee drinking is widespread, although not 
by any means universal. Just how much coffee is con¬ 
sumed annually is difficult to determine. There are no figures 
of actual production, the crop of any given year when coffee 
moves normally being given usually in terms of exports. 

Estimates of annual coffee consumption in Brazil by per¬ 
sons familiar with the country vary widely. One authority, 
for instance, places the figure at more than 200,000,000 
pounds, and says that Brazil ranks about seventh in percapita 
consumption, while another gives less than one-tenth that 
amount. It is generally agreed that coffee consumption is 
much less than might be expected, seeing that Brazil supplies 
the world with so large a proportion of its total coffee. 

One reason, perhaps the chief one, is that in the southern 
part of the country many millions of the working class drink 

205 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


the distinctive South American beverage mate in place of 
coffee. In the northern and western regions, moreover, 
coffee production is of no importance, and overland trans¬ 
portation facilities from the coffee-raising states are very- 
poor; so the natives have not become accustomed to the use 
of the chief product of their country and drink more 
spirituous liquors instead. The German colony in Rio 
Grande do Sul consumes considerable coffee, and its popula¬ 
tion probably forms the largest coffee-drinking group of the 
whole country; but the number of people in that section is 
not large, compared with the total population. 

The Trade in 1923 

If one more shipload of coffee had reached a United States 
port in time to be counted in the 1923 imports, our incoming 
coffee trade that year would have been higher in point of 
volume than in any previous fiscal or calendar year of our 
history. As it was, the total of 1,407,855,966 pounds that 
we purchased fell a little short of the record figure, which 
was 1,414,228,163 pounds in the fiscal year 1920; but the 
1923 figure was higher than that of any previous calendar 
year. In point of value, imports in 1923 were less than in 
the calendar years 1920 and 1921, but they exceeded those 
of any other year. 

The quantity and value of coffee imports for each calendar 
year since 1913 are shown in the following table: 


Calendar 

Year Pounds Value 

1913 .. 852,529,498 $104,671,501 

1914 . 1,011,071,873 104,794,319 

1915 . 1,228,761,626 113,797,866 

1916 . 1,166,888,327 118,813,421 

1917 .. 1,286,524,073 122,607,254 

1918 . 1,052,201,501 99,423,362 

1919 . 1,337,564,067 261,270,106 

1920 . 1,297,439,310 252,450,651 

1921 . 1,340,979,776 142,808,719 

1922 . 1,246,060,667 160,855,076 


1923 .. 1,407,855,966 189,993,330 


206 












PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE 

The features of the year’s trade were big gains in imports 
from Brazil, Colombia, and Central America, and a con¬ 
siderable falling off in these from Venezuela, and especially 
the Dutch East Indies. From Mexico, the West Indies, and 
Aden there were considerably increased shipments, but no 
startling gains over the preceding year. 

Brazil’s Banner Year 

The year 1923 was a banner one for Brazil in her coffee 
trade with this country. She shipped more hither last year 
than in any previous year of her history, and after many 
years again reached the point where she furnishes us with 
two-thirds of all our coffee imports. Her total shipments to 
us, 934,758,879 pounds valued at $115,881,226, represented 
a big gain over those of 1922, when the total was 802,546,- 
870 pounds having a value of $98,932,292, as well as the 
1921 total of 839,212,388 pounds valued at $77,186,271. 
If the gain is maintained at the same rate during the present 
year, 1924 shipments will pass the 1,000,000,000-pound mark 
for the first time, with 50,000,000 or 100,000,000 pounds to 
spare. 

It is interesting to note how Brazil has gradually come 
back in the proportion of our total coffee imports that she 
supplies. The shipping and other disarrangements caused 
by the war reduced Brazil’s share in our purchases from 
74 percent in the year before the outbreak of the war in 
Europe to 57 percent in 1918. Since the close of the war, 
there has been a slow but steady gain. In 1919 the propor¬ 
tion was 59 percent, in 1920 60.5 percent, in 1921 62.5 per¬ 
cent, in 1922 64.3 percent, and last year, 1923, it reached 
66.4 percent, or practically two-thirds. 

The average price of Brazil coffee, as shown by the im¬ 
port statistics, remained almost exactly the same in 1923 as 
in 1922, being 12.39 cents as compared with 12.32 cents in 
the year before. This compares with a slight advance in the 
average pound price of our total coffee imports, and also of 
our total imports from other countries than Brazil. The 


207 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


price of total imports from all countries in 1923 was 13.5 
cents, which compares with 12.9 cents in 1922, while that 
of coffee imported from non-Brazilian sources was 15.6 cents 
in 1923 and 13.9 cents in 1922. 

Coffee from Other Countries 

Colombia’s shipments to this country in 1923 showed a 
marked increase over 1922, indicating that the slump last 
year was only temporary. The 1923 total of 221,720,899 
pounds valued at $37,324,925 compared with 191,848,984 
pounds valued at $29,568,471 in 1922, and registered the 
second largest coffee year that the trade between the two coun¬ 
tries has enjoyed, having been surpassed only by the 
249,000,000 pounds valued at $37,000,000 of 1921. The 
average price increased with the volume, having been 16.8 
cents in 1923 as compared with 15.5 cents in 1922. 

Central American coffee picked up in 1923, jumping from 
99,173,458 pounds valued at $11,779,387 in 1922 to 
118,286,003 pounds valued at $15,819,156 in 1923. This is 
a considerable gain, although the total imports are far below 
the high marks reached during and immediately following 
the war, when in one year almost 200,000,000 pounds were 
shipped. 

West Indian coffee also registered an increase, amounting 
to about 20 percent in volume and 30 percent in value, but 
did not approach the high figures of recent years. Shipments 
in 1923 amounted to 8,273,127 pounds having a value of 
$1,207,664, as compared with 6,919,437 pounds valued at 
$920,036 in 1922. 

The other neighboring source of coffee imports, Mexico, 
a little more than held her own, sending us 38,933,431 
pounds valued at $6,176,548, as against 37,800,973 pounds 
valued at $5,130,167 in the year before. This may be con¬ 
sidered as about normal for Mexico under present conditions, 
although it is still below the average shipments of 15 or 20 
years ago. 


208 


PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE 


Venezuela registered a considerable decrease in exports to 
the United States, sending us only 53,587,162 pounds having 
a .value of $8,539,038, as compared with 66,644,133 pounds 
valued at $9,417,446 in 1922. While this is less than half 
the high figure of 109,000,000 pounds reached in 1919, it 
probably represents a fair average for a trade that fluctuates 
in volume rather widely from year to year. 

The figures for the Dutch East Indies indicate that the 
high total for 1922, which was 32,097,648 pounds having a 
value of $3,759,174, was probably abnormal. The 1923 
shipments, amounting to 11,757,923 pounds valued at 
$2,008,800, were about the same as those for 1921 and were 
higher than the usual figures reached before and during the 
war. Since the war, this trade has fluctuated uncertainly, 
reaching a high mark of 56,000,000 pounds in 1919. Last 
year’s imports were the lowest since 1918. 

From Aden there was an increased importation of about 
18 percent over 1922, the figures for last year having been 
2,239,015 pounds valued at $406,069 as compared with 
1,901,013 pounds valued at $332,741 in 1922. 

Coffee Exports and Percapita 

Coffee exports, including green coffee, roasted coffee, and 
coffee extracts and substitutes, were practically the same in 
1923 as in the year before. Green-coffee exports, mostly from 
Porto Rico to foreign countries, amounted to 24,714,418 
pounds valued at $4,801,728 in 1923 as compared with 
25,493,085 pounds valued at $4,818,780 in 1922. Roasted 
coffee was sent abroad to the amount of 1,652,355 pounds 
valued at $429,194 as against 1922 shipments of 1,256,971 
pounds valued at $327,744. Reexports of coffee again fell 
off, amounting to 22,021,984 pounds valued at $3,345,609 as 
compared with 26,012,894 pounds valued at $3,358,952 in 
1922. 

Cuba was a heavy purchaser, taking over 9,000,000 
pounds, and Mexico followed with 2,300,000 pounds. Most 
of the rest went to Europe, Germany having been the chief 


209 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


destination and taking 2,000,000 pounds valued at $361,000. 

Our trade with our own coffee producers, Hawaii and 
Porto Rico, fell off last year, Hawaii sending us only 
2,170,334 pounds valued at $407,535 and Porto Rico 308,103 
pounds valued at $67,351. 

Taking into account the trade with the island possessions, 
the percapita coffee consumption of continental United States 
in 1923 was 12.45 pounds. This is a substantial gain, the 
figure having been 11.1 pounds in 1922, 12.09 pounds in 
1921, and 11.7 pounds in 1920. 

The following shows United States coffee imports by sources 
for the last three years: 

Percentage of 
Increase ( + ) 
or Decrease 
(—) of 1923 
Imports Com- 

1921 1922 1923 pared xvith\922 

_A__A__A_ A _^ 

Quan- Quan - Quan- Quan- 


Fram tity Value tity Value tity Value tity Value 

Central America.. 8.80 8.6 7.9 7.3 8.4 8.3 +19.1 +34.3 

Mexico . 2.00 2.4 3.0 3.2 2.7 3.2 +3.0 +20.4 

West Indies. 1.10 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 +19.5 +31.1 

Brazil . 62.50 54.0 64.3 61.5 66.4' 60.9 +16.5 +17.1 

Colombia . 18.50 26.1 15.4 18.3 15.7 19.6 +15.5 +26.2 

Venezuela . 4.40 4.8 5.3 5.8 3.8 4.5 —19.6 —9.3 

Aden . 0.20 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 +17.7 +22.0 

Dutch East Indies 0.90 1.2 2.6 2.3 0.8 1.1 —63.3 —46.5 

Other countries... 1.60 1.6 0.8 0.9 1.6 1.6 . 

Total .100.00 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 +11.4 +18.1 


Brazil's Coffee Valorization 

Because of the effect which it is likely to have on produc¬ 
tion and consumption figures, the following statement con¬ 
cerning Brazil’s coffee valorization by W. L. Schurz, United 
States commercial attache at Rio de Janeiro, is given here 
for the benefit of those who wish to be fully posted concerning 
the plan and its operation: 

The device generally known as the valorization of coffee signifies 
the entrance of the Brazilian government into its coffee market 
on a scale that aims to enable it to control the price of that com¬ 
modity. This is accomplished by the official fixing of prices at 


210 















PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE 


a point higher than the prevailing market prices, and by regulat¬ 
ing the entries from the interior into the principal ports of ship¬ 
ment, so that there may he no congestion of stocks to depress 
the price of coffee and prejudice the smooth working of the 
operation. 

Thus, in July, 1921, entries into Santos were limited to 30,000 
bags a day. By official order of July 21, 1922, daily entries for 
the 1922-23 crop were limited to 28,000 bags for Santos and 
11,000 bags 1 for Rio de Janeiro. It was formerly the custom for 
80 to 85 percent of the crop to come to the ports within six 
months after picking had begun. 

Object of Valorization 

The immediate object of the government is to acquire enough 
of the current crop to enable it to dominate the world market, 
and, when stocks in the consuming countries are sufficiently de¬ 
pleted, to force buying at prices that are considered remunerative 
to Brazilian growers. An expedient of this kind is made possible 
by Brazil’s extraordinary position in the coffee industry of the 
world, and demands, moreover, for its complete success a com¬ 
bination of other factors, such as a sustained demand and buying 
capacity in the consuming markets and the curtailment of the 
crop by unforeseen frosts. It was probably the latter circum¬ 
stance that saved the government from a disastrous loss in con¬ 
nection with the valorization of 1918. 

The resort to such an apparently hazardous measure is justi¬ 
fiable only by the fact that coffee still constitutes the very basis 
of the general economy of Brazil. Its failure to yield an adequate 
profit to the producers is little short of a calamity, not only to 
this class, but to the federal government and the governments of 
the coffee-producing states, particularly Sao Paulo. Coffee nor¬ 
mally represents from 50 to 60 percent of the total value of the 
exports of the country, and the duties directly paid by coffee 
constitute about 40 percent of the total ordinary revenues of the 
state of Sao Paulo. Even these figures do not represent the 
entire importance of the position held by coffee in the general 
business and financial system of Brazil. 

Reason for Present Valorization 

The present valorization was provoked by the abrupt fall early 
in 1921 of the price of coffee abroad, in common with prices of 
other lines of goods, following the inflated postwar conditions. 
This fall coincided with the inability of Germany and other coun- 


211 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


tries to buy anything approaching their former purchases. Due 
to blockade and to restrictions on imports by belligerent nations, 
the first three years of the war were a time of great depression 
for Brazilian coffee, the price in New York varying from six to 
10 cents. However, the crop failure of 1918, due to general 
devastating frosts of that year, created an unheard-of shortage in 
the consuming markets and put Brazil into position to dictate 
the price of coffee, which rose in New York to 25 cents. Prices 
gradually scaled down during 1918-19 and 1919-20 crop years to 
a general level of 18 cents. 

During 1920, however, several European governments, disturbed 
by a continued unfavorable balance of trade, began to place severe 
restrictions upon the importation of coffee, though the unfavor¬ 
able effect of this on Brazil’s interests was partly counterbalanced 
by another short crop, thereby serving to maintain prices at a 
satisfactory level. The resumption* of anything approaching nor¬ 
mal buying by European markets began in 1921, but this increased 
demand coincided with a large crop, amounting to 14,496,000 bags. 
Prices fell rapidly, the decline in Rio 7s in the New York market 
for the 12 months ending in 'September amounting to over 50 
percent, with the price reaching a low level of five cents. 

In view of the prospective size of the crop, the dominant ele¬ 
ments in the federal government, headed by the president and 
strongly urged by the state government of Sao Paulo, decided on 
recourse to valorization as the only measure capable of saving 
the country from the consequences of a low price of coffee. The 
state government of Sao Paulo had already entered the market 
before the end of 1920 with the purchase of 300,000 bags. The 
purpose of the administration was announced in March, 1921, and 
the government began buying at about that time. 

Fbr some time the valorization operations were conducted on 
behalf of the Brazilian government by the Cia. Mechanica & Im- 
portadora de Sao Taulo, a very important firm of the country. 
Later the work of valorization was shared with the Brazilian 
Warrant Company, an English concern, which announced its 
profits for 1921 at £105,000. 

After placing a loan of £9,000,000 in May, 1922, a committee 
was formed, composed of Brazilian and British representatives of 
the bankers instrumental in floating the loan, to assume charge 
of subsequent valorization operations, at least in so far as they 
relate to the utilization of the proceeds of the loan and the liqui¬ 
dation of the government stock abroad. 


212 


PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE 


Financing of Valorization 

The financing of an undertaking of this magnitude presented a 
very difficult problem, as it required the carrying by the govern¬ 
ment of several million bags of coffee until such time as it could 
be liquidated at a profit. The balance of opinion was opposed to 
the usual resort to an issue of paper money. Instead, the govern¬ 
ment made use of the notes of the newly created rediscount sec¬ 
tion of the Bank of Brazil. Though the volume of these notes 
was limited, and the time in which they might continue to circu¬ 
late was fixed, both limits are said to have been exceeded during 
the course of the valorization. 

According to a formal agreement made between the federal gov¬ 
ernment and the governments of the principal coffee-producing 
states, the latter were to contribute a certain quota toward the 
expenses of valorization. Four of the principal clauses in the 
contract made between the federal and state governments read as 
follows: 

“Profits and losses resulting from these deals shall be distrib¬ 
uted in proportion to amounts invested by the national treasury 
and states entering the agreement, it being clearly understood 
that any losses that may eventually be incurred shall in no cir- 
custance, in. so far as Sao Paulo is concerned, exceed 15,000 
contos, the limit of that state’s contribution. 

“The buying and selling of coffee in Santos and Rio, propor¬ 
tionately to the amount exported from each of these ports, shall 
be directed exclusively by the federal government. 

“All coffee purchased in either Santos or Rio shall be deposited 
in warehouses and insured against all risks. 

“Operations resulting from this agreement shall be finally liqui¬ 
dated on the sale of the total amount of coffee bought by the 
government, at which time the national treasury shall present 
accounts to the state of Sao Paulo.” 

During the period under consideration there have been frequent 
rumors of loans floated in Europe for the purpose of refunding 
the short-time rediscount notes, but no loan was actually placed 
for this purpose until the joint British-American loan for 
£9,000,000 in May, 1922. This was floated in London by Roth¬ 
schild’s, Baring Brothers, and iSchroder, and in New York by 
Dillon, Read & Company. The American quota of the loan was 
£2,000,000. The loan was offered at 97, with interest at 7.5 
percent, and amortization in 30 years. A first mortgage on the 
government stock of coffee, amounting at that time to 4,534,000 
bags, held in Santos, Rio, Victoria, London, and New York, was 


213 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

given as security. This coffee represented then a value of about 
£13,000,000. 

Factors Affecting Valorization 

Various conditions affect valorization, one of most importance 
being the size of the coffee crop. Total exports from Brazil for 
the crop year 1921-22 amounted to 12,632,634 bags. Available 
figures indicate that the total Brazilian production for the year 
was 12,862,000 bags. Though the long drought of the past sum¬ 
mer undoubtedly reduced the crop to some extent, the desired 
frost did not materialize, and the diminution in the crop Was not 
heavy enough to affect appreciably the course of the valorization 
operations. The Santos share of the 1922-23 crop has been esti¬ 
mated at 6,875,509 bags. The Department of Agriculture of Sao 
Paulo has estimated the crop for that state at 5,990,000 bags, as 
against 6,290,338 bags, the estimate made by a bank in that state. 

As usual for several years, the shortage of labor in the coffee 
districts has constituted one of the most serious problems of the 
industry. In spite of considerable immigration, especially from 
Italy, the supply of laborers for the fazendas has continued far 
below the demand. Moreover, the tendency of the laborers after 
the expiration of their term of service in the fazenda is to drift 
into Sao Paulo or the larger towns, where they seek work in the 
factories or engage in small businesses on their own account. 
The laborers are also constantly more exigent in the matter of 
accommodations and wages, and are accustomed to demand per¬ 
mission to plant corn or beans between the rows of coffee trees, 
a practice that naturally reduces the productivity of the trees. 
An increasing number of laborers are also desirous of acquiring 
tracts of land for their own use. 

Competition of Other Countries 

Many Brazilians have been greatly concerned over the growing 
production of coffee in the Caribbean countries, particularly in 
Colombia. One anonymous writer in an influential newspaper, 
the Estado de Sao Paulo, in a series of articles, has emphasized 
the menace to Brazil from that area. However, one of the lead¬ 
ing Brazilian authorities on valorization declared in the same 
paper, “It is evident that Colombia is not a formidable com¬ 
petitor, in spite of the fact that she is the strongest of our rivals.” 
The development of coffee production in the lake region of East 
Africa has also not escaped the attention of those responsible for 
the prosperity of the Brazilian industry. 


214 


PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE 


The greatest anxiety, has been felt for the American market, 
on which in last resort the prosperity of the Brazilian coffee 
industry depends. Efforts have been made to stimulate the con¬ 
sumption of coffee in America, and much has been hoped for 
through an increase in coffee consumption that was expected 
would follow national prohibition in the United 'States. Not only 
is the state of the American coffee trade followed with the closest 
attention in Brazil, but the statistics of the origin of American 
coffee imports are watched carefully. Quoting from The Tea t£- 
Coffee Trade Journal, to the effect that the most important de¬ 
velopment in the coffee trade during 1921 was the increase in 
shipments from Colombia to the United States, a Brazil trade 
weekly recently published the following statistics of imports into 
the United States for 1920 and 1921: 



1920 

1921 

From 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Central America . 

. 59,204,341 

118,607,382 

Mexico. 

. 19,519,365 

26,895,034 

West Indies. 

. 20,204,674 

15,398,073 

Brazil . 

. 785,810,689 

839,212,388 

Colombia . 

. 194,682,616 

249,123,356 

Venezuela . 

. 65,970,954 

59,787,303 

Aden . 

. 889,633 

2,799,824 

East Indies. 

. 28,135,083 

12,438,016 

Other countries. 

. 14,021,455 

16,722,400 


The total exports of coffee from Colombia during 1919, 1920, 
and 1921 were 1,000,000, 1,400,000, and 2,250,000 bags, respec¬ 
tively. 


Project for Permanent Valorization 
Though many responsible persons, even in the state of Sao 
Paulo, have opposed the principle of valorization, the government 
of that state, as well as of Minas Geraes, and the federal govern¬ 
ment, has been overwhelmingly committed to it. President Pessoa 
declared his support of that policy in his messages and in 
numerous speeches. In August, 1921, he said in Sao Paulo, “The 
valorization of coffee must continue. The federal government will 
do this, whatever the cost, confident that the ultimate results will 
be of incalculable benefit to the country.” 

A project for that purpose was introduced into the federal Con¬ 
gress in October, 1921, by a deputy of Brazil, and its passage 
recommended in a special message from President Pessoa on Oc- 


215 











COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


tober 17. Though the measure was discussed at length at that 
time, it was not incorporated into law until June 19, 1922, when 
it was included in a general law for the promotion and protection 
of national production. (Decree No. 4548, published in the Diario 
Official of June 22, 1922.) 

The text of the part of section 2 of the decree that applies to 
coffee follows: 

“Art. 6. A department for permanent coffee protection is 
hereby created, with right to representation in court, and to be 
directed by a council composed of the minister of Finance as 
president, minister of Agriculture as vice president, and five other 
members appointed by the president of the republic, to be chosen 
from persons of noted capacity in agricultural, commercial, and 
banting business. Besides the presidency, the minister of Finance, 
or in his absence the minister of Agriculture, shall have the right 
to veto deliberations contrary to the express dispositions of this 
law. 

“The head office of the department for permanent coffee pro¬ 
tection shall be in the federal capital, with branches located at 
markets indicated by the government as requiring same. These 
departments are to be operated by technical employees especially 
contracted for home and foreign service in the different markets. 

“2. Article 10 of the federal Constitution in favor of the union 
is not applicable to the department of permanent coffee protection. 

“3. The permanent protection of coffee shall consist of: 

“I. Loans to interested parties on reasonable conditions, terms 
and interest to be determined by the council and guaranty of 
coffee deposited in general warehouses of the union of states. 

“II. Purchase of coffee for temporarily relieving the market, 
when the council deems advisable for the regulation of selling prices. 

“III. Coffee information and propaganda service for increasing 
demand and repressing substitutes. 

“4. The fund for permanent coffee protection shall be 300,000 
contos [1 conto = 1,000,000 reis, or $546 normal exchange]. 

“5. The fund is to be drawn from the following sources: 
Profits realized by the selling of stocks; net profits from other 
transactions for the protection of coffee; state contributions; 
internal or external credit transactions, when necessary, if same 
can be made by the executive committee at favorable terms and 
interest; by the issuing of paper currency to complete the fund for 
coffee protection, the executive committee being hereby expressly 
authorized for this purpose. 


216 


PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE 


“6. This issue shall be based on that part of the gold deposit 
for guaranty of paper currency not already guaranteeing issues 
made by virtue of decree No. 3546 of October 22, 1916, at a pro¬ 
portion of 805 for coffee acquired by the council or which is war¬ 
ranted by private concerns. 

“7. Once transactions are completed, incineration of notes, 
corresponding to amounts issued, shall take place monthly. 

“8. In case the protection of coffee requires the warranting of 
this product brought by the council for increasing its resources 
for the protection of same, the warranting shall be made on a 
maximum basis of 50 percent of the current prices of coffee. 

“Art. 7. All dispositions to the contrary are hereby canceled." 

Except for changes in detail, this decree represents substantially 
the same ideas as found in the original proposed project. 

Popular Opinion as to Benefits 

Concerning the principle of permanent valorization, there ap¬ 
peared in the Estado de Sao Paulo on June 17, 1922, this: 

“The establishment of permanent protection for coffee is the 
cornerstone in consolidating the coffee industry. The department 
shall most certainly enter the market in difficult periods; but this 
shall not be its principal object. It shall be devoted principally 
to forecasting, studying, and improving the product and placing 
it advantageously in the market; to protecting it against indus¬ 
trial and financial speculations. It shall be a factor in system¬ 
atizing and putting into execution all measures for making Brazil 
the strongest, the best prepared, the most solid, richest, and largest 
coffee-producing country in the world." 

Contrary to this aspect of valorization, the editor of 
O Eoonomista wrote in that publication, “As conceived by the 
authors of the law, permanent protection is a mistake, because 
it is based on the withdrawal of our coffee, increasing prices, and 
in this manner creating good market and excellent opportunities 
for all competitors. To hold to this idea will be to ruin the 
coffee industry in Brazil. At first coffee will be planted profusely 
because its sale to the government is certain. The more coffee 
is planted, the more necessity for protection of this industry and 
the more encouragement to competitors, because they will not 
have to enter the market. Instituting permanent protection is 
instituting permanent crisis. Issues of paper currency will de¬ 
preciate coffee in proportion to the price in the world market, 
lowering our exchange and altering the value of our paper money, 
without corresponding to foreign quotations.” 


217 




COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Advertising Copy of tiie Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, Spring of 1922 


































CHAPTER XVII 


COFFEE ADVERTISING 

The first coffee advertisement — Evolution of coffee 
advertising — Package coffee advertising — Advertis¬ 
ing to the trade — Advertising by various mediums — 
Advertising for retailers with ready-made sample 
copy — Advertising to the nose — Successful coffee 
window displays — Advertising by government propa¬ 
ganda — Coffee advertising efficiency. 

T HE first coffee advertisement was Sheik Abd-al-Kadir’s 
famous Argument in favor of the legitimate use of 
coffee, an Arabian manuscript of 1587, preserved in 
the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. It was frank propa¬ 
ganda for coffee. The latest and best advertising for coffee 
being done in America today is equally frank propaganda, 
showing that the friends of the universal beverage, 337 years 
after, are still alive to the need for intelligent advertising if 
they would continue to serve mankind with the “Gift of 
Heaven”; for coffee has its enemies in the 20th century just 
as in the 16th: our age is producing those who are jealous 
of this “beverage of the friends of God” like that early time 
when the first persecutions and attempted suppressions came 
to such inglorious ends. 

The first printed advertisement for coffee in English has 
already been referred to in Chapter I. It was Pasqua Rosee’s 
shop- or hand-bill of 1652, the original being in the British 
Museum. It is worthy of close examination. It reads: 

The Vertue of the COFFEE Drink 
First publiquely made and sold in England, by Pasqua Rosee. 
The Grain or Berry called Coffee , groweth upon little Trees, 
only in the Deserts of Arabia. 

It is brought from thence, and drunk generally throughout all 
the Grand Seigniors Dominions. 


219 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

It is a simple innocent tiling, composed into a Drink, by being 
dryed in an Oven, and ground to Powder, and boiled up with 
Spring water, and about half a pint of it to be drunk, fasting an 
hour before, and not Eating an hour after, and to be taken as 
hot as 'possibly can be endured; the which will never fetch the 
skin off the mouth, or raise any Blisters, by reason of that Heat. 

The Turks drink at meals and other times, is usually Water, 
and their Dyet consists much of Fruit, the Crudities whereof are 
very much corrected by this Drink. 

The quality of this Drink is cold and Dry; and though it be a 
Dryer, yet it neither heats, nor inflames more than hot Posset. 

It so closeth the Orifice of the Stomack, and fortifies the heat 
within, that it’s very good to help digestion, and therefore of 
great use to be taken about 3 or 4 a Clock afternoon, as well 
as in the morning. 

It much quickens the Spirits, and makes the Heart Lightsome. 

It is good against sore Eys, and the better if you hold your Head 
over it, and take in the Steem that way. 

It suppresseth Fumes exceedingly, and therefore good against 
the Head-ach, and will very much stop any Defluxion of Rheums, 
that distil from the Head upon the Stomack, and so prevent and 
help Consumptions ; and the Cough of the Lungs. 

It is excellent to prevent and cure the Dropsy, Gout, and 
Scurvy. 

It is known by experience to be better than any other Drying 
Drink for People in years, or Children that have any running 
humors upon them, as the Kings Evil, &c. 

It is very good to prevent Mis-carryings in Child-hearing 
Women. 

It is a most excellent Remedy against the Spleen, Hypocon- 
driack Winds, or the like. 

It will prevent Drowsiness, and make one fit for busines, if 
one have occasion to Watch ; and therefore you are not to Drink 
of it after Supper, unless you intend to be watchful, for it will 
hinder sleep for 3 or 4 hours. 

It is observed that in Turkey, ivhere this is generally drunk, 
that they are not trohled with ihe Stone, Gout, Dropsie, or Scur- 
vey, and that their Skins are exceedingly cleer and white. 

It is neither Laxative nor Restringent. 

Made and sold in St. Michaels Alley in Cornhill, by Pasqua 
Rosee, at the Signe of his own Head. 

The noteworthy thing about this advertisement is that, in 


220 


COFFEE ADVERTISING 


comparison with the best copy of today, it has high merit; 
for this early advertisement seems to have embodied in it 
superbly well those qualifications which modern advertising 
experts agree are essential requirements for success, measured 
in terms of sales to the consumer. 

The first newspaper advertisement was in the form of a 
reader in the Publick Adviser of London for the week of May 
19 to May 26, 1657. It is quoted on page 6. 

There followed many broadsides, some illustrated, and all 
designed to tell the public about the new drink. There is 
to be noted a curious contrast between the copy of that far- 
off time and today. Two hundred seventy years ago all the 
resources of advertising were being laid under contribution to 
make propaganda for coffee as the great cure for many ail¬ 
ments of which nowadays the enemies of coffee would have 
us believe coffee is the cause! Those who have possessed 
themselves of the facts about coffee know that both argu¬ 
ments are equally fantastic. 

Coffee was mentioned in shopkeepers’ announcements ap¬ 
pearing in the Boston News Letter as early as 1714, and in 
other newspapers of the colonies during the 18th century, 
usually being offered for sale at retail with strange com¬ 
panions. In 1748, “tea, coffee, indigo, nutmegs, sugar, 
etc.,” were advertised for sale in Dock Square, Boston. 

It appears that the first advertisement dealing with coffee 
alone was published in the New York Daily Advertiser for 
February 9, 1790; and this was primarily an advertisement 
of a wholesale coffee-roasting factory rather than an adver¬ 
tisement of coffee per se. 

Not until package coffee began to come into vogue in the 
1860s was there any change in the stereotyped business-card 
form followed by all dealers in coffee; and even then the 
monotony was varied only by inserting the brand name, such 
as “Osborn’s Celebrated Prepared Java Coffee. Put up only 
by Lewis A. Osborn”; “Government coffee in tin foil pound 
papers put out by Taber & Place’s Rubia Mills.” 


221 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


Evolution of Coffee Advertising 

Real progress in coffee advertising, as in publicity for 
other lines of trade and industry, began in the United States. 
Here, too, it has been brought to its lowest degradation and 
to its highest efficiency. The entire process has taken some¬ 
thing less than 50 years. 

The first step forward was the picture handbill. The 
handbill, or dodger, had been common enough in England 
and on the Continent, where, for upward of 200 years, it had 
served as an advertising medium, in company with the more 
robust broadside, and in competition with the pamphlet and 
newspaper. It remained for America, however, to glorify the 
handbill by means of colored pictures. 

Soon the handbill copy began to appear in the newspapers, 
but mostly without the illustrations. Later newspaper de¬ 
velopments were to introduce more of the picture element, 
decorative border, and design. The ideas of European artists 
were freely drawn upon, but put to such utilitarian uses that 
their originators would scarcely have been able to recognize 
them. 

In the Ladies' Home Journal for December, 1888, the 
Great London Tea Company, Boston, an early mail-order 
house, advertised, “We have made a specialty since 1877 of 
giving premiums to those who buy tea and coffee in large 
quantities.” In the same issue, there was an advertise¬ 
ment of Seal Brand and Crusade Brand coffees by Chase & 
Sanborn, Boston. Dilworth Brothers, Pittsburgh, were also 
among the early users of magazine space. 

The menace of the coffee-substitute evil and the mis¬ 
leading and untruthful substitute copy had grown to such 
proportions in the early days of the 20th century that the 
coffee men began to be concerned about it. At one time there 
were nearly 100 coffee-substitute concerns engaged in a bitter 
campaign directed against coffee in this country alone. After 
a time the coffee men organized as the National Coffee 
Roasters Association to defend their rights. Later, the cereal 


222 


COFFEE ADVERTISING 


substitute was thoroughly discredited by government analysis. 

In the United States today, coffee advertising has reached 
a high plane of copy excellence. Our coffee advertisers lead 
all nations. The educational work started by The Tea & 
Coffee Trade Journal , fostered by the National Coffee Roast¬ 
ers Association, and developed by the Joint Coffee Trade 
Publicity Committee, has laid low many of the bugaboos 
raised by the cereal sinners. 

Package Coffee Advertising 

Coffee advertising began to take on a distinctive character 
with the introduction of Ariosa by John Arbuckle in 1873. 
Some of the early publicity for this pioneer package coffee 
appears typographically crude, judged by modern standards; 
but the copy itself has all the needful punch, and many of 
the arguments are just as applicable today as they were a 
half-century ago. 

Most of the original Arbuckle advertising was by means of 
circulars or broadsides, although some newspaper space was 
employed. Premiums were first used by John Arbuckle as an 
advertising sales adjunct, and they proved a big factor in 
putting Ariosa on the map. Mr. Arbuckle created the kind 
of word-of-mouth publicity for his goods that is the most 
difficult achievement in the business of advertising. It 
caused so deep and lasting an impression, that in some sec¬ 
tions it has persisted through at least five decades. The 
advertising moral is: Get people to talk your brand. 

Among the many long-established advertised package- 
coffee successes may be mentioned: 

Arbuckle’s Yuban and Ariosa ; McLaughlin’s XXXX ; Chase & 
Sanborn’s 'Seal Brand; Dwinell-Wright’s White House; Weir’s 
Red Ribbon; B. Fischer & Company’s Astor; Brownell & 
Field’s Autocrat; Bour’s Old Master; Scull’s Boscul; Seeman 
Brothers’ White Rose; Blanke’s Faust; Baker’s Barrington Hall; 
Woolson Spice Company’s Golden Sun; International Coffee Com¬ 
pany’s Old 4 Homestead; Kroneberger’s Old Reserve; Western 
Grocer Company’s Chocolate Cream; Leggett’s Nabob; Clossett 
& Dover’s Golden West; R. C. Williams’ Royal Scarlet; Mer- 


223 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


chants’ Coffee Company’s Alameda; Widlar Company’s C. W. 
brand; Meyer Bros.’ Old Judge; Nash-Smith Tea & Coffee Com¬ 
pany’s Wedding Breakfast; J. A. Folger & Company’s Golden 
Gate; Ennis-Hanly-Blackbum Coffee Company’s Golden Wed¬ 
ding ; M. J. Brandenstein & Company’s M. J. B.; Hills Brothers’ 
Red Can, the Young & Griffin Coffee Company’s Franco-American, 
and the Cheek-Neal Coffee Company’s Maxwell House. 

It was estimated that the amount of money spent by the 
larger coffee roasters upon all forms of publicity in the United 
States in 1920 was about $3,000,000. 

Experience has proved that a package coffee, to be suc¬ 
cessful, must have back of it expert knowledge of buying, 
blending, roasting, and packing, as well as an efficient sales 
force. These things are essential: A quality product; a good 
trade-mark name and label; an efficient package. With these, 
an intelligently planned and carefully executed advertising 
and sales campaign will spell success. Such a campaign 
comprehends advertising directed to the dealer and to the 
consumer. It may include all the approved forms of public¬ 
ity, such as newspapers, magazines, billboards, electric signs, 
motion pictures, demonstrations, and samples. One phase of 
trade advertising which should not be overlooked is dealer 
helps. 

Advertising to the Trade 

Until a comparatively recent date, the green-coffee im¬ 
porter, selling the roasting trade, has not realized the need 
of advertising, because, in most instances, green coffee is 
not sold by the mark, and, to a certain extent, price has been 
the determining factor. 

During late years, however, many green-coffee firms 
have come to realize that there is a goodwill element that 
enters into the equation which can be fostered by the intelli¬ 
gent use of advertising space in the coffee roaster’s trade 
journal; also, a few importers are now featuring trade marks 
in their advertising, thus building up a tangible trade-mark 
asset in addition to goodwill. 


224 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Drawing Upon History for Social-Intercourse Atmosphere 







COFFEE ADVERTISING 


Advertising by Various Mediums 

Billboard and other outdoor advertising, also car cards, 
are being used to a considerable extent for coffee publicity. 
Painted outdoor signs have been the backbone of one Middle 
West roaster’s campaign for a number of years. Both car 
cards and billboards are growing in popularity, because they 
enable the coffee packer to reproduce his package in its 
natural colors and permit also of striking displays. Such 
firms as Arbuckle Brothers, New York; Dayton Spice Mills, 
Dayton, Ohio; W. F. McLaughlin & Company, Chicago; the 
Puhl-Webb Company, Chicago; the Bour Company, Toledo; 
B. Fischer & Company, New York; and the Cheek-Neal Cof¬ 
fee Company, Nashville and New York, are consistent users 
of this character of advertising. Electric signs also have 
proved effective for coffee advertising. 

Motion pictures are a comparatively new development in 
coffee advertising. One of the first coffee roasters to adopt 
this plan of publicity was S. H. Holstad & Company, Min¬ 
neapolis. The film used depicted the cultivation and prep¬ 
aration of coffee for the market, also the complete roasting 
and packaging operations. The A. J. Deer Company, man¬ 
ufacturer of coffee mills and roasters, Hornell, New York, 
was another pioneer in the use of coffee films. Jabez Burns 
& Sons, coffee-machinery manufacturers, followed with an 
educational coffee picture. The National Packaging 
Machinery Company, of Boston, is another concern that has 
utilized films for advertising purposes, showing its machines 
in operation in a coffee-packing plant. Many roasters made 
use of the coffee film produced by the Joint Coffee Trade 
Publicity Committee. 

Advertising for Retailers 

When retailers analyze the people to whom they sell coffee, 
they usually find three types. First, there is the woman who 
thinks she is an expert judge of coffee, but is unable to find 
anything to suit her cultivated taste. Then, there is the new 


225 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


housewife, possibly a bride of a few months, who knows 
very little about coffee, but wants to find a good blend that 
both she and her husband will like. The third is the most 
acceptable class, the satisfied people who have found coffee 
that delights them, day after day. 

The following “ready made” copy appeals for the three 
classes. To “Mrs. Know-it-all-about-Coffee,” this style has 
been found effective: 

IMPROVE THE COFFEE AND YOU IMPROVE THE 

MEAL 

The corner of the table that holds the coffee urn is the 
balancing point of your dinner. If the coffee is a “little off” 
for some reason or other—probably it’s the coffee’s own fault 
—things don’t seem so good as they might; but when it is 
“up to taste,” the meal is a pleasure from start to finish. If 
the “balancing point” is giving you trouble, let Any Blend 
Coffee properly regulate it for you. 35 cents, three pounds 
for $1. 

ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY 
For the good lady who is eager to find a suitable blend of 
coffee, and who desires information, this is a good appeal: 

A iSUCCESiSFUL SELECTION 
Of the coffee that goes into the every-morning cup will 
arrive on the day when Any Blend is first purchased. Many 
homes have been without such a success now for a long time, 
but, of course, they didn’t know of Any Blend —and even 
now it is hard to really know Any Blend till you try it. 
That is why we seem to insist that you ask for an introduc¬ 
tion by ordering a pound. 

ANY BLEND TEA & COFFEE COMPANY 

Taking both classes and dealing with them alike: 

“BLENDED TO BALANCE” 

Is a good descriptive phrase of Any Blend coffee, for care 
is taken in the preparation that the strength does not over¬ 
power the flavor. The aim of the blender is to get an accept¬ 
able and delightful drinking quality. He has been more than 
successful, as you will see when you try Any Blend. 35 
cents, three pounds for $1. 

ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY 


226 


COFFEE ADVERTISING 


The satisfied class, of course, is not averse to making a 
change, and it is well, occasionally, for the dealer to let his 
own satisfied customers know he still believes in his goods. 
The argument might take this form: 

A SERVICE THAT SAVES 
Is the serving of Any Blend, when coffee is desired. Any 
Blend saves many things. It saves worry, for it is always 
uniform in flavor and strength. It saves time, for when you 
order Any Blend we grind it just as fine or just as coarse 
as your percolator or pot demands. Any Blend also saves 
expense, because there is no waste, as you know just how 
much to use, every time, to make a certain number of cups. 

35 cents, three pounds for $1. 

ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY 

Again, possible new customers may listen to this appeal: 

TO PROVE YOUR APPROVAL 
Of Any Blend coffee, you are asked to try just one pound. 
We know you will like it, for it is blended and roasted and 
ground as an exceptional coffee should be, with the care that 
a good coffee demands. Prove to yourself that you approve 
of this method of preparing coffee. 35 cents, three pounds 
for $1. 

ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY 

In some households the cook is permitted to do the order¬ 
ing, and usually the cook does not read the daily papers 
with an eye for coffee ads. To reach this individual through 
her mistress: 

CAN YOU NAME YOUR COFFEE? 

Or is it one of those many unknown brands that comes 
from the store at the order of your cook? Let the cook do 
the ordering, for you are lucky if you have one you can rely 
upon, but tell her you prefer Any Blend to the No-Name 
Blend you may now be using. Any Blend has one distinct 
advantage over all others; it is freshly roasted. Tell the 
kitchen-lady, now, to order Any Blend. 

ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY 


227 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


Advertising to the Nose 

Advertising, for the most part, is designed to attract 
attention and custom through the eye. Sometimes the ear can 
successfully be appealed to, but the sounds rarely have any 
real relation to the object advertised; and, so, often prove 
unsatisfactory in their results. Not so long ago, a California 
coffee concern made successful appeal to the noses of possible 
purchasers of its wares. 

A chain of coffee specialty stores in which the coffee 
is roasted fresh every day was started in California about 
1916, and it met with almost instant success. In this system, 
the proprietor buys the green coffee in large quantities, and it 
is roasted in each of his specialty stores (which are located 
in public markets), store windows, and alongside heavily 
traveled highways. The roasting machinery is invariably 
set up in front of the store where the passerby can easily see 
it in operation and also smell the coffee roasting. Some 
retail coffee roasters direct the smoke from the roasting ma¬ 
chine through the spout of a huge coffee pot on the sidewalk 
in front of their stores. This makes a very effective adver¬ 
tisement, as the odor from the fresh-roasted coffee tickles the 
noses of passersby for blocks around. 

Successful Coffee Window Displays 

O. Wallace Davis, who won first prize in the $2,000 win¬ 
dow-trimming contest of National Coffee Week in 1920, has 
some worth-while things to say on grocery-window displays 
of coffee. He writes: 

^.our show windows are the eyes of your store. As you look 
into a friend’s eyes to learn his true thoughts, so the prospective 
customer gazes into your windows to find out what kind of store 
you keep. 

Keep the eyes of your store bright, honest, and attractive. 

A well-arranged show window is the retailer’s best asset. Goods 
well displayed are half sold, ©very grocer knows this, but not 
everyone knows how to use his windows to the best advantage. 
Here are a few simple directions, the fundamental principles of 
the window dresser’s art, which anyone can follow: 


228 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



m 

d 

d -*-» 
•r? W 

ft oj 

rv 


° 

J c« 5 

£ O o 


CG 

£ £ 
c$ 3 

° O 

d 5} 

d M 

JB O 
c 

o ,Q 

<D J— 
0J3 5 

b C 
i2 d 
o 

o d 


^ 5 
C .5 

aS V 


A Prize-Winning Coffee Window Display 













COFFEE ADVERTISING 


In arranging grocery or provision windows, the first and most 
important principle is cleanliness. 

Your window glass, flooring, background, fixtures, merchandise, 
and display material must be absolutely clean. Use nothing that 
will in anyway suggest anything but the most sanitary condi¬ 
tions in your store. A can of tomatoes with a rust-stained label 
inevitably indicates ancient goods. A finger-marked price ticket 
causes the customer to see dirty hands touching your merchan¬ 
dise ; and so small a thing as a flyspeck on a soda cracker will 
queer an otherwise attractive display. 

So cleanliness is the first great commandment; and the second 
is like unto it,— neatness. No window can ever be too neat. A 
crooked stand, pyramid, or shelf has no place in a store’s show 
window. 

Arrangement, color, merchandise, make ,—select and get these 
fundamental elements right, and your window must be attractive. 
Neglect any one of them, and your display will suffer. 

Merely to stop the crowd, to arouse curiosity or entertain, is 
not enough. The argument must be there so convincingly that the 
observer will be drawn irresistibly into the store or persuaded to 
buy. 

Try to work into your displays the unusual; not necessarily 
some freak, but something that will arrest attention of the 
passerby, and, having secured attention, lead his eye to the real 
object of the display, which should always be the merchandise 
itself or some advertising matter pertaining to the goods for sale. 

Effective displays may be obtained by filling an entire window 
with one item, with a cleverly phrased card telling the story. In 
conjunction with a one-item display, a good color scheme adds 
greatly to the pulling force. For instance, if you are displaying 
a package of coffee with a tan and black label, a brown back¬ 
ground trimmed with a “motif” in black would emphasize the 
articles and lead the eye directly to them. 

It is not always desirable to specialize on a single article. 
Several, and sometimes a large number of, items can be shown in 
such manner as to give to each its own individuality. This is 
known as “unit trimming.” Arrange each article in a group, with 
plenty of space between groups. For example, several pyramids 
of canned goods, arranged in groups on high pedestals or shelves 
in the background of the window, would not necessarily detract 
from smaller items or articles on the floor near the front. 

Keep your floor covering in harmony with your background, 
and generally lighter in color. An example may be helpful: Sup- 


229 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

pose you wish to show a window of canned goods with a blue 
and white label and the brand name, “Tulip,” or “Daisy,” or 
“Rose.” A rich shade of orange would make a strong background 
for these, and a few flowers, such as the brand suggests, would 
aid materially in making an attractive window. 

In arranging these special displays, a little study of the pack¬ 
age itself will suggest many ideas and help you put an extra 
punch into your window. Most manufacturers furnish free win¬ 
dow-display material advertising their own goods, such as dummy 
packages, posters, hangers, strips, and cut-outs; but the window 
that attracts the biggest crowd and sells the most goods usually 
is one upon which the boss, or one of his clerks, has used his 
own gray matter. The standardized window may reach a high 
grade,—in fact, the displays arranged by salesmen or traveling 
representatives of the big manufacturers and jobbers are uni¬ 
formly good and far above the average,—but standardization can¬ 
not supply the personal touch and the local color which any 
grocer should be able to furnish if he is willing to devote to his 
windows a fair amount of time, thought, and labor. Frequently 
an ideal combination can be obtained through the use of a stand¬ 
ard window trim to which the retailer has added just a few 
touches of his own to give it individuality. 

Many warnings have been written against “overcrowding” a 
window ; but don’t skimp your display. Fill it full of interest, 
enthusiasm, and pep. Remember that there is no better or 
cheaper advertising. Compare its cost with the cost of any other 
form of advertising, and you will need no further argument to 
convince you that it is worth all the time and attention you can 
give it. 

The displaying of coffee offers endless opportunities. In the 
first place, it is a familiar article, in which everyone is interested. 
It comes in many forms, which suggest a great variety of -ways 
to handle it in a window. No article the grocer sells is more 
attractively packed. Cartons, bags, and cans are easy to arrange 
in a multitude of attractive designs. Coffee in bulk, in either 
the berry or ground, looks well in almost any receptacle, and the 
^finished product suggests familiar household scenes. 

A coffee display offers unusual opportunities to the clever sign 
writer, and the advertising literature issued by the roasters and 
the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee furnishes a never- 
failing source of material. The public, and especially housewives, 
are always interested in signs telling how to prepare and serve 
coffee. 


230 


COFFEE ADVERTISING 


Advertising by Government Propaganda 

Advertising coffee by government propaganda has been 
indulged in with more or less success by the British govern¬ 
ment in behalf of certain of its colonial possessions; by the 
French and the Dutch; by Porto Rico, Costa Rica, Guate¬ 
mala, and Brazil. The markets most cultivated have been 
Italy, France, England, Russia, Japan, and the United 
States. 

Over 20 years ago, the author began an agitation for 
cooperative advertising by the coffee trade. He suggested 
as a slogan, “Tell the truth about coffee,” and it is gratifying 
to find that many of his original ideas have been embodied in 
the present Joint Coffee Trade Publicity campaign, which 
has been going on for five years. 

This campaign, made possible by generous contributions 
from Brazil and the coffee merchants of the United States, 
has, by means of advertisements in newspapers and periodi¬ 
cals, through scientific research, by educational booklets, etc., 
done much to dissipate the erroneous ideas propagated by the 
traducers of our national beverage and to acquaint the gen¬ 
eral public with the truth about coffee. 

Coffee Advertising Efficiency 

In advertising coffee, it is well to bear in mind these three 
thoughts, which should be woven into the fabric of all copy: 

1. The intrinsic desirability of coffee—the actual pleasure to 
be derived from the act of partaking of it. 

2. That it is delightful medium for social intercourse—part 
of the essential equipment for an intimate chat or more general 
assemblage of friends. 

3. That its proper service is a badge of social distinction—the 
mark of a successful hostess. 


231 





























COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Coffee-Making Devices Used in United States 

I. Marion Harland pot. 2. Universal percolator. 3. Galt vacu¬ 
um-process coffee maker. 4. Universal electric urn. 5. English 
coffee biggin (Langley ware). 6. Universal cafenoira (glass fil¬ 
ter). 7. Vienna (Bohemian or Carlsbad) coffee machine. 8. 
Tru-Bru pot. 9. 'Tricolator. ,10. Manruing-Bowman percolator. 

II. Blanke’s Sanitary coffee pot. 12. Phylax coffee maker. 13. 
Private Estate coffee maker. 14. American French-drip pot. 15. 
Kin-Hee pot. 16. Silex opalescent glass filter. 17. French-drip 

pot (Langley ware). 
















CHAPTER XVIII 


COFFEE MAKING IN THE HOME 

The importance of correct grinding and brewing — 
Drip or filter coffee — Boiled or steeped coffee — Per¬ 
colated coffee—The perfect cup of coffee — Some 
coffee recipes. 

T HE ideal way to prepare the coffee drink would be to 
buy the coffee green, then roast and grind it just before 
making the beverage. This was the ancient custom, 
and obtained even in our grandmothers’ day. Today, 
especially for busy people in cities, it isn’t so practical to 
buy coffee in the green and roast it as needed. 

Then, too, there are efficient roasting plants, usually just 
around the corner, where it is much better done than ever 
Grandmother did it, for all her loving care and infinite 
patience; and, for those who live some distance from the 
roaster, there are air-proof, dust-proof, and damp-proof con¬ 
tainers,—aye, even vacuum tins,—in which the freshly roasted 
bean may be kept reasonably fresh until it is needed for table 
use. 

Again, for those too busy to grind their own, there are 
efficient grinders in the factory or store which make it possible 
to supply any grind in package form or on demand. It is 
possible to get freshly roasted and freshly ground coffee of 
excellent quality in almost any given community. 

At the same time, it is a coffee-making axiom that, the 
shorter the time between roasting and making, the better the 
beverage. For those who wish a superior cup of coffee, it is 
well to bear this thought in mind. Most everyone knows 
that green coffee improves with age; roasted coffee loses its 
flavor rapidly, especially after it is ground. This is because 
the aromatic flavoring elements developed by roasting begin 


233 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


to escape as soon as exposed to the air. The roasted berry 
also absorbs moisture, which causes destructive changes in 
the flavoring oils. Ground coffee, therefore, should be kept 
in a container that is moisture proof and as nearly air-tight 
as possible. If the original package does not give this pro¬ 
tection after it is once opened, place the contents in a glass 
fruit jar or other vessel which can be kept sealed. 

The following general directions for making coffee in the 
home have been worked out by Edward Aborn, the New York 
coffee-brewing expert, and published by the Joint Coffee 
Trade Publicity Committee in cooperation with the National 
Coffee Roasters Association: 

Grinding 

The roasted berry is constructed of fibrous tissues formed into 
tiny cells visible only under the microscope, which are the “pack¬ 
ages” wherein are stored the whole value of coffee, the aromatic 
oils. Like cutting up an orange, the grinding of coffee is the 
opening of surrounding tissue and pulp. 

If coffee is bought “in the bean” and ground at home, use a 
mill that can be adjusted to give a uniform granulation best 
suited to the particular brewing method adopted. There are 
several on the market. 

Measure Carefully 

There is no set rule for the proper proportions of coffee and 
water. This will vary with the kind of coffee used, the way it is 
ground, and the method of brewing, and, above all, with individual 
taste. But, once you have found the right proportion, that is the 
proportion best suited to your use: stick to it. Don’t guess; 
measure carefully, both water and coffee. Remember that, in 
brewing, the coffee grounds absorb a certain amount of the water 
in the pot; therefore, to make five cups of coffee, use, say, five 
and one-half cupfuls of water, and in the same proportion with 
larger or smaller quantities. 

Extracting the Coffee Flavor 

Chemists have analyzed the coffee bean and told us that its 
delicious taste is due to certain aromatic oils. This aromatic 
element is extracted most efficiently only by fresh-boiling water. 
The practice of soaking the grounds in cold water, therefore, is 


234 


COFFEE MAKING IN THE HOME 


to be condemned. It is a mistake also to let the water and the 
grounds boil together after the real coffee flavor is once extracted. 
This extraction takes place very quickly, especially when the 
coffee is ground fine. The coarser the granulation, the longer it 
is necessary to let the grounds remain in contact with the boiling 
water. Remember that flavor, the only flavor worth having, is 
extracted by the short contact of boiling water and coffee grounds, 
and that, after this flavor is extracted, the coffee grounds become 
valueless dregs. 

Use Grounds Only Once 

Although the foregoing rules are absolutely fundamental to good 
coffee making, their importance is so litle appreciated that in 
some households the lifeless grounds from the breakfast coffee are 
left in the pot and resteeped for the next meal, with the addition 
of a small quantity of fresh coffee. Used coffee grounds are of 
no more value in coffee making than ashes are in kindling a fire. 

Serve at Once 

After the coffee is brewed, the true coffee flavor, now extracted 
from the bean, should be guarded carefully. When the brewed 
liquid is left on the fire or overheated, this flavor is cooked away 
and the whole character of the beverage is changed. It is just 
as fatal to let the brew grow cold. If possible, coffee should be 
served as soon as it is made. If service is delayed, it should be 
kept hot but not overheated. For this purpose, careful cooks 
prefer a double boiler over a slow fire. The cups should be 
warmed beforehand, and the same is true of a serving pot, if one 
is used. Brewed coffee, once injured by cooling, cannot be re¬ 
stored by reheating. 

Scour the Coffee Pot 

Unsatisfactory results in coffee brewing frequently can be 
traced to lack of care in keeping utensils clean. The fact that 
the coffee pot is used only for coffee making is no excuse for set¬ 
ting it away with a hasty rinse. Coffee-making utensils should 
be cleansed with scrupulous care after each using. If a perco¬ 
lator is used, pay special attention to the small tube through 
which the hot water rises to spray over the grounds. This should 
be scrubbed with a wire-handled brush. 

Don’t Dry Filter Bags 

In cleansing drip or filter bags, use cool water. Hot water 
“cooks in” the coffee stains. After the bag is rinsed, keep it 


235 



COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


submerged in cool water until time to use it again. Never let it 
dry. This treatment protects the cloth from the germs in the air 
which cause souring. New filter bags should be washed before 
using to remove the starch or sizing. 

Drip or Filter Coffee 

The principle behind this method is the quick contact of water 
at full boiling point with coffee ground as fine as it is practicable 
to use it. The filtering medium may be of cloth or paper, or per¬ 
forated chinaware or metal. The (fineness of the grind should be 
regulated by the nature of the filtering medium, the grains being 
large enough not to slip through the perforations. 

The amount of ground coffee to use may vary from a heaping 
teaspoonful to a rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee de¬ 
sired, depending upon the granulation, the kind of apparatus used, 
and individual taste. A general rule is, The finer the grind the 
smaller the amount of d*ry coffee required. 

The most satisfactory grind for a doth drip bag has the con¬ 
sistency of powdered sugar, and shows a slight grit when rubbed 
between thumb and finger. Unbleached muslin makes the best 
bag for this granulation. For dripping coffee reduced to a powder, 
as fine as flour or confectioner’s sugar, use a bag of canton flan¬ 
nel with the fuzzy side in. Powdered coffee, however, requires 
careful manipulation and cannot be recommended' for everyday 
household use. 

Put the ground coffee into the bag or sieve. Bring fresh water 
to a full boil, and pour it through the coffee at a steady, gradual 
rate of flow. If a cloth drip bag is used, with a very finely 
ground coffee, one pouring should be enough. No special pot or 
device is necessary. The liquid coffee may be dripped into any 
handy vessel or directly into the cups. Dripping into the coffee 
cups, however, is not to be recommended, unless the dripper is 
moved from cup to cup so that no one cup will get more than its 
share of the first flow, which is the strongest and best. 

The brew is complete when it drips from the grounds, and fur¬ 
ther cooking or “heating up” injures the quality. Therefore, since 
it is not necessary to put the brew over the fire, it is possible to 
make use of the hygienic advantages of a glassware, porcelain, or 
earthenware serving pot. 

Boiled or Steeped Coffee 

For boiling or steeping, use a medium grind. The recipe is a 
rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee desired, or, as some 


236 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



Brewing the Guest’s Coffee in a Mohammedan Home 













































! •* 









































COFFEE MAKING IN THE HOME 


cooks prefer to remember it, a tablespoonful for each cup and 
“one for the pot.” Put the dry coffee into the pot and pour over 
it fresh water briskly boiling. Steep for five minutes or longer, 
according to taste, over a low fire. Settle with a dash of cold 
water, or strain through muslin or cheese cloth and serve at once. 

Percolated Coffee 

Use a rounded tablespoonful of medium-fine-ground coffee to 
each cupful of water. The water may be poured into the per¬ 
colator cold or at the boiling point. In the latter case, percola¬ 
tion begins at once. Let the water percolate over the grounds 
for five to 10 minutes, depending upon the intensity of the heat 
and the flavor desired. 

“For Better Coffee” 

In June, 1924, the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Com¬ 
mittee, in cooperation with the National Coffee Roasters 
Association, published for distribution among consumers a 
booklet entitled “For Better Coffee Making,” prepared from 
the 1923 coffee-research report of Professor Samuel C. 
Prescott of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
Its purpose was “to explain as clearly and concisely as 
possible the best way to prepare beverage coffee as recom¬ 
mended by the institute.” This booklet heads as follows: 

Making good coffee is an art easily acquired. The American 
housewife has it, but her methods are varied and her success not 
always assured. 

American coffee roasters felt there must be a uniform way to 
make better coffee, so they consulted the highest scientific author¬ 
ity in the country upon the subject. The Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology was chosen because of its prestige. In the public 
mind its findings become at once authoritative. 

For three years it sought a way to make better coffee. Thou¬ 
sands of experiments were made. Individual tastes were tested. 
Safeguards were laid against prejudice and bias. All the previous 
works upon the subject were consulted and their recipes given 
consideration. Every known way of making coffee was tried out 
until the best was ascertained. 

This booklet, prepared from the report, purposes to explain as 
clearly and concisely as possible this best way recommended by 
Massachusetts Tech, to prepare beverage coffee. 


237 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


No doubt millions of women are making coffee, by percolation 
and by boiling, that has been satisfactory to them. This booklet 
neither discourages nor condemns these methods, but merely shows 
a newer and a better way, a way in which the most in flavor and 
aroma will be secured. 

The buying is as important as the making. Be sure you start 
out with a good quality of coffee. The handling, after the pur¬ 
chase has been made, has a direct bearing upon the quality of the 
beverage. 

Two simple rules govern the purchase of coffee if this way is 
to be tried. These are very good reasons for these rules: 

1. Coffee in the bean loses its carbondioxid and its freshness 
much less rapidly than ground coffee. Grinding the coffee, in 
fact, results in a marked and immediate loss of this necessary ele¬ 
ment. 

Roasted coffee contains considerable carbondioxid. Carbon¬ 
dioxid is absolutely harmless. It is being used extensively with 
foodstuffs at present. In dairy products it prevents the growth 
of bacteria and retards the development of rancid acids. It 
enables many food materials to be preserved for a long period of 
time. In coffee its action is similar. Hence, it is desirable to 
retain as much of it as possible. 

' 2. Be sure that any coffee you buy, whether bulk, package, or 
can, is fresh. Fresh coffee contains the greatest amount of car¬ 
bondioxid, and the carbondioxid gives the assurance that the 
flavor and aroma will be longer retained and the quality of the 
coffee kept at its best. 

The preservation of the aroma, flavor, and freshness of the 
coffee from the time of purchase until the time of consumption 
depends upon several precautions: 

1. Keep the coffee in a tight container. 

2. Do not expose it to the air by leaving the container un¬ 
covered. 

3. Place the container where it will have no contact with 
moisture. 

4. See that the container is kept as far as possible from any 
heat. 

5. If you buy whole bean coffee, grind it only in the quantity 
needed at the time of making. 

All of these rules have to do with the retention of the flavor 
and aroma. While coffee in the bean loses both slowly, there are 
a number of ways in which carelessness will permit a rapid loss. 


238 


COFFEE MAKING IN THE HOME 


One is exposing a large amount of the surface of the bean to the 
air; another is allowing moisture to get into the container; and a 
third is permitting heat to drive away the gas. 

The fifth rule, of course, relates to the purchase of the coffee 
in the bean. To secure and conserve the maximum flavor and 
aroma, the grinding should be done just as the brewing is to begin. 

For this reason the coffee mill should be restored to its proper 
place in the kitchen. It should be a good mill, giving a uniform 
grind, and not the cheap types, which quickly get out of order. 

The most delicious results are obtained by using fresh-roasted 
coffee, freshly ground, through which water of a temperature just 
below the boiling point is dripped for not more than two minutes. 

The rules to be followed to attain this most desired result are 
not hard to remember: 

1. See that the coffee is not ground too coarse. A fine grind 
yields a richer flavor than a coarse grind, because of the more 
rapid and complete solution of the flavor-giving substances. 

2. Allow at least a tablespoonful of ground coffee to a cup 
of water. The exact proportion depends upon the kind of coffee 
used, and can be determined only by individual taste. In measur¬ 
ing the water always allow an extra cup for the evaporation. 

3. Be sure the water boils ; then pour it over the freshly 
ground coffee. Many types of coffee pots are provided with special 
perforated containers for the freshly ground coffee. By means of 
these perforations the hot water drips slowly through the coffee. 
By pouring at the boiling point, the water in contact with the 
coffee falls to just the temperature needed to extract the greatest 
amount of flavor and aroma. If a coffee drip bag is used, be sure 
it is kept clean and sweet. 

4. The dripping process should not last longer than two 
minutes. Long dripping at a lower temperature increases the 
bitter taste and decreases the flavor and aroma. 

5. Serve at once. Letting coffee cool ruins it. If there is a 
delay in serving, keep the coffee piping hot, but do not let it boil. 

0. Do not use the ground coffee a second time. Coffee once 
used has given all its aroma and flavor to the beverage. There is 
nothing of any value left in the grounds. 

7. Scour the coffee pot. It is necessary to have the utensil 
clean. Remnants of the old grounds will weaken the freshly 
ground coffee. 

These are the simple rules for a better cup of coffee—proved by 
science and well worth a trial. 


239 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


Coffee Making Devices 

There are many coffee-making devices used in the United 
States, the best known being the Marion Harland pot, the 
Private Estate coffee maker, Galt vacuum-process coffee 
maker, Universal percolator and glass filter, English coffee 
biggin, Manning-Bowman percolator, Vienna coffee machine, 
Blanke’s Sanitary coffee pot, Phylax coffee maker, American 
French-drip pot, tricolator, Kin-Hee pot, Tru-Bru pot, and 
Silex glass filter. 

The Perfect Cup of Coffee 

Lovers of coffee in the United States are in better position 
to obtain an ideal cup of the beverage than those in any 
other country. While imports of green coffee are not so care¬ 
fully guarded as tea imports, there is a large measure of gov¬ 
ernment inspection designed to protect the consumer against 
impurities, and the Department of Agriculture is zealous in 
applying the Pure Food Law to insure against misbranding 
and substitution. The department has defined coffee as “a 
beverage resulting from a water infusion of roasted coffee 
and nothing else.” 

Today, no reputable merchant would think of selling even 
loose coffee for other than what it is, and the consumer may 
feel that, in the case of package coffee, the label tells the truth 
about the contents. 

With a hundred different kinds of coffee coming to this 
market from 19 countries, so many combinations are possible 
that there is sure to be a straight coffee or a blend to suit any 
taste, and those who may have been frightened into the belief 
that coffee was not for them should do a little experimenting 
before exposing themselves to the dangers of the coffee-sub¬ 
stitute habit. 

Once upon a time, it was thought that Java and Mocha 
were the only worth-while blend, but now we know that a 
Bogota coffee from Colombia and a Bourbon Santos from 
Brazil make a most satisfying drink; and, if the individual 
should happen to be a caffein-sensitive, there are coffees so 


240 


COFFEE MAKING IN THE HOME 


low in caffein content, like some Porto Ricans, as to overcome 
this objection; while there are other coffees from which the 
caffein has been removed by special treatment. There is no 
reason why any person who is fond of coffee should forgo its 
use. Paraphrasing Makaroff, Be modest, be kind, eat less, 
and think more, live to serve, work and play and laugh and 
love—it is enough! Do this, and you may drink coffee with¬ 
out danger to your immortal soul. 

If you are accustomed to buying loose coffee, have your 
dealer do a little experimental blending for you until you find 
a coffee to suit your palate. Some expert blends are to be 
found among the leading package brands. But you really 
cannot do better than to trust your case to a first-class grocer 
of known reputation. He will guide you right if he knows 
his business; and, if he doesn’t, then he doesn’t know his 
business—try elsewhere. Test him out somewhat along this 
line: 

Let us reason together, Mr. Grocer. Let us consider these 
facts about coffee: Green coffee improves with age? Granted. 
As soon as it is roasted, it begins to lose in flavor and aroma ? 
Certainly. Grinding hastens the deterioration? Of course. 
Therefore, it is better to buy a small quantity of freshly 
roasted coffee in the bean and grind it at the time of purchase 
or at home just before using? Absolutely! 

If your grocer reacts in this fashion, he need only supply 
you with a quality coffee at fair price and you need only 
to make it properly to obtain the utmost of coffee satis¬ 
faction. 

Some connoisseurs still cling to the good old two-thirds 
Java and one-third Mocha blend, but the author has for 
years found great pleasure in a blend composed of half 
Medellin Bogota, one-quarter Mandheling “Java,” and one- 
quarter Mocha. However, this blend might not appeal to 
another’s taste, and the component parts are not always easy 
to get. The retail cost (1924) is about 50 cents. 

Another pleasing blend is composed of Bogota, washed 


241 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 

Maracaibo, and Santos, equal parts. This should retail fiom 
40 to 45 cents. Good-drinking coffees are to be had for 
prices ranging from 32 to 37 cents. In the stores of one of 
the large chain systems, an excellent blend composed of 
50 percent Bourbon Santos and 50 percent Bogota is to 
be had (1924) for 35 cents. All these figures apply, of 
course, to normal times. 

If you are epicurean, you will want to read up on, and to 
try, the fancy Mexicans, Cobans, Sumatra growths, Meridas, 
and some from the “Kona side” of Hawaii. 

In preparing the perfect cup of coffee, then, the coffee 
must be of good grade, and freshly roasted. It should, if 
possible, be ground just before using. The author has found 
a fine grind, about the consistency of fine granulated sugar, 
the most satisfactory. For general home use, a device that 
employs filter paper or filter cloth is best; for the epicure an 
improved porcelain French percolator (drip pot) or an im¬ 
proved cloth filter will yield the utmost of coffee’s delights. 
Drink it black, sweetened or unsweetened, with or without 
cream or hot milk, as your fancy dictates. 

It should be remembered that to make good coffee no 
special pot or device is necessary. Good coffee can be made 
with any china vessel and a piece of muslin. But to make 
it in perfection pains must be taken with every step in the 
process from roaster to cup. 

Hollingworth points out that through taste alone it is im¬ 
possible to distinguish between quinine and coffee, or between 
apple and onion. There is something more to coffee than its 
caffein stimulus, its action on the taste buds of the tongue and 
mouth. The sense of smell and the sense of sight play im¬ 
portant roles. To get all the joy there is in a cup of coffee, 
it must look good and smell good, before one can pronounce 
its taste good. It must woo us through the nostrils with the 
wonderful aroma that constitutes much of the lure of coffee. 

That is why, in the preparation of the beverage, the greatest 
possible care should be observed to preserve the aroma until 


242 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 



<v 

E 


O 

o 


a> 

<C 


C 

b£ 

ci 

£ 

ti 

a 

<v 

& 


>*-> 

cj 

o 

5m 

c 

c 

o 


O 

a> 

w 

o 

S— 

O 






o 4 ' 



^ • i- * 

r * / { 

































* 





























. * 








































COFFEE MAKING IN THE HOME 


the moment of its psychological release. This can be done 
only by having it appear at the same instant that the delicate 
flavor is extracted: roasting and grinding the bean much in 
advance of the actual making of the beverage will defeat this 
object. Boiling the extraction will perfume the house; but 
the lost fragrance will never return to the dead liquid called 
coffee, when served from the pot whence it was permitted to 
escape. 

To recapitulate, with an added word on service, the correct 
way to make coffee is as follows: 

1. Buy a good grade of freshly roasted coffee from a respon¬ 
sible dealer. 

2. Grind it very fine, and at home, just before using. 

3. Allow a rounded tablespoonful for each beverage cup. 

4. Make it in a French-drip pot or in some filtration device 
where freshly boiling water is poured through the grind but once. 
A piece of muslin and any china receptacle make an economical 
filter. 

5. Avoid pumping percolators, or any device for heating water 
and forcing it repeatedly through the grounds. Never boil coffee. 

6. Keep the beverage hot and serve it “black,” with sugar and 
hot milk, or cream, or both. 

Some Coffee Recipes 

When Mrs. Ida C. Bailey Allen prepared a booklet of 
recipes for the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, she 
introduced them with the following remarks on the use of 
coffee as a flavoring agent: 

Although coffee is our national beverage, comparatively few 
cooks realize its possibilities as a flavoring agent. Coffee com¬ 
bines deliciously with a great variety of food dishes, and is espe¬ 
cially adapted to desserts, sauces, and sweets. Thus used, it 
appeals particularly to men and to all who like a full-bodied, pro¬ 
nounced flavor. 

For flavoring purposes, coffee should be prepared just as care¬ 
fully as when it is intended for a beverage. The best results are 
obtained by using freshly made coffee, but when, for reasons of 
economy, it is desirable to utilize a surplus remaining from the 
mealtime brew, care should be taken not to let it stand on the 
grounds and become bitter. 


243 


COFFEE MERCHANDISING 


When introducing made coffee into a recipe calling for other 
liquid, decrease this liquid in proportion to the amount of coffee 
that has been added. When using it in a cake or in cookies, in¬ 
stead of milk, a tablespoonful less to the cup should be allowed, 
as coffee does not have the same thickening properties. 

In some cases, better results are gained if the coffee is intro¬ 
duced into the dish by scalding or cooking the right proportion 
of ground coffee with the liquid which is to form the base. By 
this means, the full coffee flavor is obtained, yet the richness of 
the finished product is not impaired by the introduction of water, 
as would be the case were the infused coffee used. This method 
is advisable especially for various desserts which have milk as a 
foundation, as those of the custard variety and certain types of 
Bavarian creams, icecream, and the like. The right proportion of 
ground coffee, which is generally a tablespoonful to the cup, should 
be combined with the cold milk or cream in the double-boiler top 
and should then be scalded over hot water, when the mixture 
should be put through a very fine strainer or cheese cloth, to re¬ 
move all grounds. 

Coffee may be used as a flavoring in almost any dessert or 
confection where a flavoring agent is employed. 

On iced coffee and the use of coffee in summer beverages in 
general, Mrs. Allen writes as follows: 

Iced Coffee. This is not only a delicious summer drink, but 
it also furnishes a mild stimulation that is particularly grateful 
on a wilting hot day. It may be combined with fruit juices and 
other ingredients in a variety of cooling beverages which are less 
sugary and cloying than the average warm-weather drink, and for 
that reason it is generally popular with men. 

Coffee that is to be served cold should be made somewhat 
stronger than usual. Brew it according to your favorite method, 
and chill before adding sugar and cream. If cracked ice is added, 
make sure the coffee is strong enough to compensate for the re¬ 
sulting dilution. Mixing the ingredients in a shaker produces a 
smoother beverage, topped with an appetizing foam. 

It is a convenience, however, to have on hand a concentrated 
sirup from which any kind of coffee-flavored drink may be con¬ 
cocted on short notice and without the necessity of lighting the 
stove. Coffee left over from meals may be used for the same pur¬ 
pose, but it should be kept in a covered glass or china dish and 
not allowed to stand too long. A coffee sirup made after the fol- 



244 


COFFEE MAKING IN THE HOME 


lowing recipe will keep indefinitely and may be used as a basis 
for many delicious iced drinks: 

Coffee Sirup. Two quarts of very strong coffee; 3% pounds 
sugar. The coffee should -be very strong, as the sirup will be 
largely diluted. The proportion of a pound of coffee to one and 
three-fourths quarts of water will be found satisfactory. This 
may be made by any favorite method, cleared and strained, then 
combined with the sugar, brought to boiling point, and boiled for 
two or three minutes. It should be canned when boiling, in steril¬ 
ized bottles. Fill them to overflowing, and seal as for grape juice 
or for any other canned beverage. 



245 














*- 








* 





















• • 
















































































































































































































































































